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PHILIP'S
ATLAS OF
WORLD
HISTORY
PHILIP'S
ATLAS OF
WORLD
HISTORY
mm
» 1
GENERAL EDITOR, PATRICK K. O'BRIEN
INSTITUTE OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
Philip's Atlas of World History
First published in 2002 by Philip's
an imprint of Octopus Publishing Group
2-4 Heron Quays
London
E14 4JP
Second edition 2005
Reprinted with revisions 2007
ISBN-13 978 540 08867 6
ISBN-10 540 08867 6
Copyright © 2002-2007 Philip's
A catalogue record for this book is available from
the British Library
All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for
the purpose of private study, research, criticism or
review, as permitted under the Copyright Designs
and Patents Act, 1988, no part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical,
optical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without prior written permission. All enquiries
should be addressed to the Publisher.
Commissioning Editor Jane Edmonds
Editors Christian Humphries
Jannet King
Petra Kopp
Martha Leyton
Richard Widdows
Editorial Assistant Louise Jennett
Picture Research Sarah Moule
Production
Katherine Knowler
Sally Banner
Cartography by Philip's Map Studio
Additional cartography by Cosmographies, Watford
Designed by Design Revolution, Brighton
Additional artwork by Full Circle Design
Printed and bound in Hong Kong
Details of other Philip's titles and services can be
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www.philips-maps.co.uk
CONTRIBUTORS
GENERAL CONSULTANT EDITOR
Patrick K. O'Brien FBA
Centennial Professor of Economic History
London School of Economics
Convenor of the Programme in Global History
Institute of Historical Research
University of London
CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE ANCIENT
WORLD
Jane Mcintosh
University of Cambridge
CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE MEDIEVAL
WORLD
Peter Heather
Reader in Early Medieval History
University College London
University of London
CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE EARLY
MODERN WORLD
David Ormrod
Senior Lecturer in Economic and
Social History
University of Kent at Canterbury
CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE AGE
OF REVOLUTIONS
Roland Quinault
Reader in History
University of North London
CONSULTANT EDITOR: THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY
Pat Thane
Professor of Contemporary History
University of Sussex
Reuven Amitai
Senior Lecturer and Department Head
Department of Islamic and Middle
Eastern Studies
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Lito Apostolakou
Visiting Research Fellow
Centre for Hellenic Studies
King's College
University of London
Dudley Baines
Reader in Economic History
London School of Economics
University of London
Ray Barrell
Senior Research Fellow
National Institute of Economic and
Social Research (NIESR), London
Antony Best
Lecturer in International History
London School of Economics
University of London
David Birmingham
Professor of Modern History
University of Kent at Canterbury
Ian Brown
Professor of the Economic History
of South East Asia
School of Oriental and African Studies
University of London
Larry Butler
Lecturer in Modern History
University of Luton
Peter Carey
Laithwaite Fellow and Tutor in
Modern History
Trinity College
University of Oxford
Evguenia Davidova
Research Associate
Institute of History
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia
Kent G. Deng
Lecturer in Economic History
London School of Economics
University of London
Saul Dubow
Reader in History
University of Sussex
Ben Fowkes
Senior Lecturer in History
University of North London
Ulrike Freitag
Lecturer in History
School of Oriental and African Studies
University of London
Stephen Houston
University Professor of Anthropology
Brigham Young University
Janet E. Hunter
Saji Senior Lecturer in Japanese
Economic and Social History
London School of Economics
University of London
Robert Iliffe
Lecturer in the History of Science
Imperial College of Science, Technology
and Medicine
University of London
Timothy Insoll
Lecturer in Archaeology
University of Manchester
Liz James
Lecturer in Art History
University of Sussex
Simon Kaner
Senior Archaeologist
Cambridge County Council
Zdenek Kavan
Lecturer in International Relations
University of Sussex
Thomas Lorman
School of Slavonic and European Studies
University of London
Rachel MacLean
British Academy Post-Doctoral
Research Fellow in Archaeology
University of Cambridge
Patricia Mercer
Senior Lecturer in History
University of North London
Nicola Miller
Lecturer in Latin American History
University College London
University of London
David Morgan
Senior Lecturer in History
University College London
University of London
Jean Morrin
Lecturer in History
University of North London
R. C. Nash
Lecturer in Economic and Social History
University of Manchester
Colin Nioolson
Senior Lecturer in History
University of North London
Phillips O'Brien
Lecturer in Modern History
University of Glasgow
David Potter
Senior Lecturer in History
University of Kent at Canterbury
Max-Stephan Schulze
Lecturer in Economic History
London School of Economics
University of London
Ian Selby
Research Fellow
St Edmund's College
University of Cambridge
Caroline Steele
Lecturer in Iliad Program, Dartmouth College
Research Associate
State University of New York at Binghamton
Diura Thoden van Velzen
English Heritage
Jessica B. Thurlow
University of Sussex
Luke Treadwell
University Lecturer in Islamic Numismatics
Oriental Institute
University of Oxford
Nick von Tunzelmann
Professor of the Economics of Science
and Technology
Science and Technology Policy Research Unit
University of Sussex
Emily Umberger
Associate Professor of Art History
Arizona State University
Gabrielle Ward-Smith
University of Toronto
David Washbrook
Reader in Modern South Asian History
Professorial Fellow of St Antonys College
University of Oxford
Mark Whittow
Lecturer in Modern History
Fellow of St Peter's College
University of Oxford
Beryl J. Williams
Reader in History
University of Sussex
Richard Wiltshire
Senior Lecturer in Geography
School of Oriental and African Studies
University of London
Neville Wylie
Lecturer in Modem History
Acting Director of the Scottish Centre
for War Studies
University of Glasgow
CONTENTS
10 FOREWORD
12
the
ANCIENT
WORLD
1 Colonization <>l" (hi- world I.N million
ago to 10,000 BC
2 The spread of fanning c. in. -3080 m :
.1 Civilizations o. 3000-1700 B
■4 Civilizations u. 500-200 BC
5 The world aij 200-500
16 THE HUMAN REVOLUTION:
5 MILLION YEARS AGO TO 10,000 BC
1 Early hominids
2 The spread of hominids
3 Colonization of the globe
18 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:
ASIA 12,000 BC-AD 500
1 Hunter-gatherers in Asia
2 The birth of farming in the
Fertile Crescent
3 Farmers of West and South Asia
4 The spread of farming in East Asia
20 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:
EUROPE 8000-200 BC
1 The spread of farming in Europe
7000-3500 bc
2 The age of copper 3500-2000 BC
3 Bronze Age Europe 2500-800 BC
4 Celtic Europe 800-200 bc
22 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:
AFRICA 10,000 BC-AD 500
1 Postglacial hunter-gathers in the
10th-6th millennia BC
2 Farming in the 7th-lst millennia BC
3 Trade and industry in the
1st millennium BC
4 The spread of Bantu speakers
24 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:
THE AMERICAS 12,000-1000 BC
1 Colonization of the Americas
2 Hunter-gatherers and early farmers in
North America from 8000 bc
3 Farming in Mesoamerica 7000-1200 bc
4 Farming in South America from 6500 BC
26 FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:
AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC
10,000 BC-AD 1000
1 Colonization of the Pacific
2 Adapting to Australia
3 Easter Island
4 New Zealand
28 THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS:
MESOPOTAMIA AND THE INDUS REGION
4000-1800 BC
1 Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic
Period c. 2900 BC
2 The city of Warka
The city of Mohenjo-Daro
3 International trade in the 4th and
3rd millennia BC
4 The Indus civilization
30 THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS:
EGYPT 3500-2180 BC AND CHINA 1700-1050 BC
1 Old Kingdom Egypt
2 Bronze-working in China
3 Shang China e. 1700-1050 bc
32 CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA
1200 BC-AD 700
1 The Olmec c. 1200-300 BC
2 Classic highland civilizations c. ad 1-700
3 Patterns of urbanization
4 Early Classic Maya c. ad 200-550
34 CULTURES IN SOUTH AMERICA
1400 BC-AD 1000
1 Pre-Chavin and Chavin 1400-200 bc
2 Nazca and Moche 375 BC-AD 650
3 Tiwanaku and Huari AD 400-1000
4 Irrigation systems in the
Andean region
36 THE MEDITERRANEAN AND
THE GULF REGION 2000-1000 BC
1 Empires and trade in the 2nd millennium BC
2 Middle and New Kingdom Egypt
2055-1069
3 Invasions and migrations in the
Mediterranean c. 1200 BC
38 EMPIRES AND TRADERS 1200-600 BC
1 The Assyrian Empire 911-824 bc
2 Phoenicia, Philistia, Israel and Judah
3 The Phoenicians c. 800 BC
4 Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian and
Median Empires 750-550 BC
40 CLASSICAL GREECE 750-400 BC
1 Vegetation and agriculture
2 Colonization and trade 750-550 bc
3 The Persian Wars 492-479 BC
4 The Peloponnesian War 431-404 BC
42 THE ACHAEMENID AND HELLENISTIC
WORLD 600-30 BC
1 The expansion of the Achaemenid Empire
2 The growth of Macedonia
3 The Hellenistic world
4 The successor kingdoms
44 THE BIRTH OF WORLD RELIGIONS
1500 bc-ad 600
1 World religions to AD 600
2 The spread of Buddhism to ad 600
3 The Holy Land
4 The origins and spread of Christianity
to AD 600
46 FIRST EMPIRES IN INDIA 600 BC-AD 500
1 Kingdoms and empires 400 BC-AD 500
2 Invaders and settlers
3 Town and country
4 Trade and religion
48 FIRST EMPIRES IN CHINA 1100 BC-AD 220
1 The emergence of unified China
350-221 bc
2 The Han Empire 206 bc-ad 220
3 The city of Chang'an
4 Agriculture and commerce
1st century bc
50 PEOPLES OF CENTRAL ASIA
6000 BC-AD 500
1 Southwestern Central Asia
c. 6000-2000 BC
2 Central Asia c. 2000-1000 bc
3 Spread of Indo-European languages
4 Nomad confederacies 800 bc-ad 100
5 Nomads in the 4th and 5th centuries ad
52 EURASIAN TRADE 150 BC-AD 500
1 Trading networks 150 bc-ad 500
2 Southeast Asia 150 bc-ad 500
54 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 BC-AD 400
1 The Roman Empire ad 106
2 The defence of the empire AD 100-300
3 Trade in the Roman Empire
56 BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF THE
ROMAN EMPIRE 100-500
1 Germanic tribes in the 1st century ad
2 Barbarians beyond the frontier 100-350
3 Invasions and migrations 375-450
4 Successor kingdoms c. 500
58
THE
MEDIEVAL
WORLD
1 Food production in the 15th century
2 States, empires and cultural regions
0. I 2' I"
62 RELIGIONS OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
600-1500
1 World religions 750-1450
2 The Christian world c. 700-1050
3 Religions in Asia c. 1500
64 KINGDOMS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA 500-1500
1 Kingdoms in mainland Southeast
Asia 500-800
2 Kingdoms and empires 800-1200
3 Kingdoms, sultanates and trade 1200-1450
66 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 527-1025
1 Boundaries and campaigns
of conquest 527-1025
2 The themes c. 1025
3 Religion and trade
4 Constantinople c. 1025
68 THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 630-1000
1 The Islamic conquests to 750
2 Territories controlled by Abbasid
caliph in the 9th century
3 The early Abbasid city of Baghdad
4 Central Islamic lands in the 10th century
70 THE FIRST SLAVIC STATES 400-1000
1 The spread of Slavic culture 300-660
2 State formation c. 800-1000
3 Trade c. 700-1000
4 Slavic states c. 1000
72 EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD 618-907
1 East and Central Asia 618-907
2 Tang China 618-907
3 Korea c. 600
4 Korea and Japan 750-900
74 FRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-900
1 The growth of Frankish kingdoms
2 The empire of Charlemagne and his
successors
3 The Carolingian Renaissance
4 The 9th-century Frankish economy
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: CONTENTS
76 PEOPLES OF THE EUROPEAN STEPPE
350-1000
1 Hunnic campaigns in the 5th century
2 The Avars in the 6th century
3 The western steppe c. 895
4 The Magyars 896-955
78 THE VIKINGS 800-1100
1 Voyages of exploration
2 Viking trade and raids
3 Conquest and settlement 865-92
4 Conquest and settlement 892-911
5 The kingdom of Denmark in the
11th century
80 STATES AND TRADE IN
WEST AFRICA 500-1500
1 States in West Africa 500-1500
2 Vegetation zones in West Africa
3 Principal trade commodities
and trade routes 800-1500
82 STATES AND TRADE IN EAST AFRICA
500-1500
1 States and trading communities
2 Trade routes and commodities
3 Great Zimbabwe
84 CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA AND
SOUTH AMERICA 500-1500
1 Sican and Chimu cultures 850-1475
2 Late Classic Maya 550-900
3 Post-Classic Yucatan and highland
Mexico c. 900-1500
4 Western Mesoamerica 500-1475
86 EAST ASIA 907-1600
1 China under the Northern Song c. 1000
2 East Asia in 1150
3 Korea under the Koryo dynasty 936-1392
4 Korea and Japan 1400-1600
88 THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-1400
1 The Muslim world 1022
2 The Seljuk Empire 1092
3 The Muslim world 1200
4 India under the Sultanate of Delhi
1211-1398
5 The Muslim world 1308
90 THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 962-1356
1 The Holy Roman Empire c. 950-1360
2 Switzerland 1291-1529
3 German expansion to c. 1360
92 FRANCE, SPAIN AND ENGLAND 900-1300
1 The kingdoms of France and Burgundy
c. 1050
2 Spain 1157
3 Spain and the western Mediterranean 1300
4 English lands 1295
5 The kingdoms of France and Aries 1265
94 THE WORLD OF THE CRUSADERS
1095-1291
1 The First Crusade 1095-99
2 The Crusader States 1140
3 The Crusader States 1186
4 The Third Crusade 1189-92
5 The Fifth Crusade 1217-21
96 THE DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE AND
RISE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-1500
1 The Byzantine Empire 1025-1096
2 The Balkans and Anatolia after the
fall of Constantinople 1204
3 The Byzantine Empire: restoration
and decline 1340-60
4 The growth of the Ottoman Empire
1307-1481
98 THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-1405
1 The Mongol conquests 1207-79
2 Mongol campaigns in eastern Europe
3 The successor khanates
4 Area subjugated by Timur-leng
1360-1405
100 THE ECONOMY OF EUROPE 950-1300
1 The rise of specialist production in
western Europe from 950
2 Rural growth: the Chartres region of France
3 Urban growth across Europe
4 Mediterranean trade in the 12th and
13th centuries
102 URBAN COMMUNITIES IN WESTERN
EUROPE 1000-1500
1 The urban population of Europe c. 1300
2 Northern and central Italy c. 1500
3 The Low Countries c. 1500
104 CRISIS IN EUROPE AND ASIA 1330-52
1 Eurasian trade routes in the 14th century
2 The spread of the Black Death in Europe
106 EUROPE 1350-1500
1 Europe c. 1400
2 The Hundred Years' War 1337-1453
3 The Church during the Great Schism
1378-1417
4 The economy after the Black Death
108 CULTURES IN NORTH AMERICA 500-1500
1 The Pueblo Peoples
2 Chaco Canyon
3 Moundbuilders of the Mississippi
4 Native American peoples c.1500
5 Movements of Native American peoples
14th to 18th centuries
110 THE INCA AND AZTEC EMPIRES 1400-1540
1 The Inca Empire
2 Plan of Inca Cuzco
3 The provinces of the Aztec Empire c.1520
112
THE EARLY
MODERN
WORLD
1 Eurasian land empires o. 1 7<Ki
2 European wrtrld rrade 15* Ml
3 Wurld [riidiini umpires 1770
116 THE EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD
1450-1600
1 Voyages of exploration 1485-1600
2 Routes across the Pacific
118 EUROPEANS IN ASIA 1500-1790
1 The Portuguese in Asia c.1580
2 European activity in Asia c.1650
3 Principal commodities in Asian trade
1600-1750
120 SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS 1492-1550
1 The Caribbean 1492-1550
2 Central and southern North America
1519-1550
3 Cortes' expedition to Tenochtitlan
4 South America 1526-50
122 THE COLONIZATION OF CENTRAL AND
SOUTH AMERICA 1500-1780
1 Mexico, Central America and
eastern Caribbean 1520-1750
2 Spanish and Portuguese South
America 1525-1750
3 Administrative divisions of Spanish
and Portuguese America 1780
124 THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA
AND THE CARIBBEAN 1600-1763
1 Colonization of the North American
mainland to 1750
2 Colonization of the Caribbean 1625-1763
3 The Seven Years' War 1756-63
126 SLAVE ECONOMIES OF THE WESTERN
HEMISPHERE 1500-1880
1 The transatlantic slave trade
2 Slave economies of the western
hemisphere
128 THE GROWTH OF THE ATLANTIC ECONOMIES
1620-1775
1 The distribution of population in
Europe c. 1650
2 The Atlantic economies 1650-1750
130 THE RISE OF EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL
EMPIRES 1600-1800
1 European empires and trade
2 World silver flows 1650-1750
132 EUROPEAN URBANIZATION 1500-1800
1 European urbanization 1500
2 European urbanization 1600
3 European urbanization 1700
4 European urbanization 1800
5 The growth of London 1600-1700
134 THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE 1500-1770
1 Centres of learning c. 1770
2 Scientific and technological
innovations 1650-1735
136 AFRICA 1500-1800
1 Peoples, kingdoms and economic activity
1500-1800
2 Towns and trade centres of the Gold and
Slave Coasts 1500-1800
138 MING AND MANCHU QING CHINA 1368-1800
1 Trade and production centres in the
Ming period
2 Voyages of Zheng He 1405-33
3 Ming and Manchu Qing imperial borders
140 TOKUGAWA JAPAN 1603-1867
1 Major domains and regions in the late
Tokugawa period
2 Major transport routes in the late
Tokugawa period
3 Urbanization in the late Tokugawa period
142 THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVID EMPIRES
1500-1683
1 The growth of the Ottoman Empire to 1683
2 The making of the Ottoman-Safavid
frontier 1514-1639
3 Trade routes in the 16th and 17th centuries
CONTENTS
CONTINUED
144 INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS 1526-1765
1 Mughal conquests 1506-1605
2 Trade and manufacturing
3 Expansion and encroachments 1605-1707
4 An empire in decline
146 EUROPEAN STATES 1500-1600
1 Europe c. 1560
2 France in the 16th century
3 Italy 1500-59
148 THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA 1462-1795
1 The expansion of Muscovy
2 The growth of the Russian Empire
3 Russian development in the west 1598-1795
150 SWEDEN, POLAND AND THE BALTIC 1500-1795
1 Swedish expansion in the 16th and
17th centuries
2 Swedish military ativity c. 1620-1710
3 Sweden in 1721
4 The Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania
1462-1672
5 Partitions of Poland 1772-95
152 THE HABSBURG EMPIRE 1490-1700
1 The Habsburg Empire 1556-1618
2 The Burgundian inheritance
3 The Habsburgs in central Europe 1618-1700
154 THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER
REFORMATION IN EUROPE 1517-1648
1 The Protestant and Catholic Reformation
2 The Reformation in Switzerland
3 The Reformation and religious
conflict in France
156 REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE
1600-1785
1 Wars and revolts in Europe 1618-1680
2 The acquisitions of Louis XIV 1643-1715
3 The expansion of Prussia 1618-1795
158 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WARFARE IN EUROPE
1450-1750
1 Major fortifications and battles 1450-1750
2 The Thirty Years War 1618-48
160
THE
AGE OF
REVOLUTIONS
1 Political systems l'-*14
2 Major European conflicts 1770-1') I 3
3 Major military conflicts outside Europe
mo-i9i3
164 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1775-83
1 The colonial economy c. 1770
2 British North America 1763-75
3 The American War of Independence 1775-83
166 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC
EUROPE 1789-1815
1 Revolutionary France 1789-94
2 Napoleonic Europe 1796-1815
3 European coalitions 1793-1815
168 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN
1750-1850
1 Resources and development in England 1750
2 The cotton textile industry in Lancashire
1850
3 Industry in Britain 1850
170 THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF EUROPE 1830-1914
1 The growth of industry and railways
2 The level of industrialization 1860
3 The level of industrialization 1913
172 REVOLUTION AND REACTION IN EUROPE
1815-49
1 Treaty settlements in Europe 1814-15
2 Civil unrest in Europe 1819-1831
3 Centres of revolution 1848-49
174 THE HABSBURG EMPIRE: EXPANSION AND
DECLINE 1700-1918
1 Territorial expansion and contraction
1700-1814
2 Habsburg territories 1814-1914
3 Nationalities in Austria-Hungary 1900
4 Revolution in the Austrian Empire 1848^19
176 THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND OF
GERMANY 1815-71
1 Italy after the Congress of Vienna 1815
2 The unification of Italy
3 The German Confederation, Austrian
Empire, Prussia and Denmark 1815
4 Germany from confederation to empire
178 THE DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
1683-1923
1 The decline of the Ottoman Empire
1683-1923
2 Retreat in the Balkans 1699-1739
3 Retreat in the Caucasus 1826-78
4 The birth of the Republic of Turkey 1920-23
180 RUSSIAN TERRITORIAL AND ECONOMIC
EXPANSION 1795-1914
1 The territorial expansion of the
Russian Empire 1795-1914
2 The economic development of European
Russia 1800-1914
3 The years of revolution 1905-7
182 THE WESTWARD EXPANSION OF THE
UNITED STATES 1783-1910
1 Territorial expansion from 1783
2 Stages of settlement
3 Routes of exploration and settlement
4 Treatment of the Native Americans
184 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 1861-65
1 The slave population and cotton production
2 The legal position of slavery 1861
3 The Civil War
186 THE INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THE
UNITED STATES 1790-1900
1 Railroads and canals 1860
2 Industrial development 1890
3 Population and urbanization 1900
188 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CANADA 1763-1914
1 Settlement in eastern Canada before 1825
2 Westward expansion to 1911
3 Political development since 1867
190 INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA
AND THE CARIBBEAN 1780-1830
1 Latin America and the Caribbean 1800
2 Liberation campaigns of Boh'var and
San Martin
3 Latin America and the Caribbean 1830
192 LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
POST-INDEPENDENCE 1830-1914
1 South America 1830-1914
2 Mexico 1824-67
3 Central America and the Caribbean
1830-1910
194 THE BRITISH IN INDIA 1608-1920
1 The growth of British dominion 1756-1805
2 Expansion of the empire 1805-58
3 The empire 1858-1914
4 Agriculture and railways 1850-1925
196 SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE AGE OF
IMPERIALISM 1790-1914
1 Autonomous states and colonies 1792-1860
2 The High Colonial Age 1870-1914
198 LATE MANCHU QING CHINA 1800-1911
1 Wars against China 1840-95
2 Foreign spheres of influence and treaty ports
3 The Taiping Rebellion
4 The 1911 Revolution
200 THE MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN 1867-1937
1 Urbanization, industrialization and
modern prefectures
2 Growth of the railway network
3 Acquisitions overseas 1870-1933
202 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUSTRALIA AND
NEW ZEALAND SINCE 1790
1 Exploration of Australia and New Zealand
1606-1874
2 Economic development of Australia
3 Economic development of New Zealand
204 AFRICA 1800-80
1 Principal African and European trading
routes c. 1840
2 The spread of Islam and Christianity
1860-1900
3 European exploration
206 THE PARTITION OF AFRICA 1880-1939
1 Africa on the eve of the First World War
2 The South African (Boer) War 1899-1902
3 Colonial economic development
208 WORLD TRADE AND EMPIRES 1870-1914
1 Empires and patterns of world trade
2 International investment 1914
210 WORLD POPULATION GROWTH AND
URBANIZATION 1800-1914
1 World population growth and urbanization
1700-1900
2 Major population movements 1500-1914
212
THE
TWENTIETH
CENTURY
1 Wars 1914-45
2 Wars since 1945
3 Major trading blocs 1998
216 THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR
1871-1914
1 European Alliances 1882
2 European Alliances 1914
3 The Balkan Wars 1912-13
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: CONTENTS
218 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-18
1 The First World War in Europe and the
Middle East
2 The Western Front
3 Trench warfare: Battle of the Somme
220 OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
1918-29
1 Europe in 1914
2 Treaty settlements in Europe 1919-23
3 The division of the Ottoman Empire
4 Post-war alliances
222 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 1917-39
1 Revolution and civil war in Russia
2 Revolutionary activity in Europe
1919-23
3 The Soviet Union 1928-39
224 THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA 1911^9
1 Communist retrenchment 1934-36
2 Civil war 1945-49
3 Industrial development 1895-1949
226 LATIN AMERICA 1914-45
1 Increasing urban population 1920-50
2 US influence in Mexico, Central
America and the Caribbean
3 Latin America in the First World War
4 Latin America in the Second World War
228 THE GREAT DEPRESSION 1929-33
1 The effect of the Depression in North
America
2 The effect of the Depression in Europe
3 Decline in exports from countries trading
mainly in primary products 1928-29 to
1932-33
4 Countries on the gold standard 1929-34
230 THE RISE OF FASCISM 1921-39
1 Expansion of the Italian Empire 1922-39
2 Expansion of Nazi Germany 1933-39
3 The Spanish Civil War 1936-39
4 Right-wing dictatorships 1919-39
232 THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN EUROPE
1939^15
1 Military campaigns in Europe 1939-45
2 Germany's "New Order" in Europe
November 1942
3 Central Europe 1945
234 THE WAR IN ASIA 1931-45
1 The Japanese in China 1931-45
2 The Japanese offensive 1941-42
3 The Allied offensive 1942-45
236 THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN
EUROPE 1945-89
1 Communist Eastern Europe 1945-89
2 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
in the 1970s
3 The economy of the Soviet Union
and Eastern Europe 1948-89
238 WESTERN EUROPE SINCE 1945
1 The economic effect of the Second
World War
2 The economic integration of Western
Europe
3 Employment in industry and services
1950 and 1991
240 THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1900
1 Population changes 1900-96
2 Distribution of non-white population 1900
3 Distribution of non-white population and
civil rights demonstrations from 1955
242 THE ROLE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE
WORLD SINCE 1945
1 US security commitments post-1945
2 US overseas trading commitments
1930s-1990s
244 THE COLD WAR 1947-91
1 Cold War conflicts
2 The Korean War 1950-53
3 The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
246 THE BREAKDOWN OF EMPIRES SINCE 1945
1 Colonies and mandates 1939
2 Decolonization 1945-98
3 Commonwealth of Nations
4 Decolonization in the Caribbean
248 SOUTH ASIA SINCE 1920
1 Administrative structure of India
in the 1930s
2 The partition of India 1947
3 Disputed territory and separatist
movements
250 SOUTHEAST ASIA SINCE 1920
1 The end of Western rule
2 The Vietnam War 1959-75
3 Trade and urbanization
252 JAPAN SINCE 1945
1 Changes in distribution of population
since 1960
2 Distribution of manufacturing output
since 1960
3 Japanese investment and trade in East Asia
254 THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA SINCE
1949
1 Population distribution in 1976
2 Land productivity and major industrial
centres in the 1980s
3 Open cities and Special Economic Zones
256 AFRICA SINCE 1939
1 Independent Africa
2 Multiparty democracy
3 South Africa under apartheid
4 South Africa after apartheid
258 LATIN AMERICA SINCE 1945
1 Main exports in the 1990s
2 US intervention in Latin America
since 1945
3 Ethnic composition
260 THE MIDDLE EAST SINCE 1945
1 The Middle East and surrounding region
since 1945
2 The Palestine conflict
3 The Arab-Israeli Wars 1967 and 1973
4 Wars in the Gulf 1980-88 and 1990-91
262 THE FORMER REPUBLICS OF THE
SOVIET UNION SINCE 1989
1 The break-up of the Soviet Union since 1991
2 Caucasus region 1988-98
3 The August rebellion 1991
264 EASTERN EUROPE SINCE 1989
1 The transition from communism to
democracy 1989-96
2 Economic development 1990-97
3 Former Yugoslavia 1991-99
266 UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING SINCE 1945
1 UN membership and peacekeeping
operations
2 The division of Cyprus 1974
3 The UN in Bosnia 1994
268 HUMAN RIGHTS SINCE 1914
1 The spread of democracy
2 Religious and ethnic conflicts 1917-98
3 The division of Ireland 1922
270 THE POSITION OF WOMEN SINCE 1914
1 Women and the right to vote
2 Women in employment 1990s
3 Girls in secondary education 1998
4 Women elected to the US Congress
272 THE WORLD ECONOMY SINCE 1945
1 The richest 20 countries 1950/1970/1990
2 The oil crisis 1973-74
3 Openness to trade 1980
274 CHANGES IN POPULATION SINCE 1945
1 Population increase 1950-97
2 Urbanization of the world
3 Human migration 1918-98
276 PATTERNS OF HEALTH AND ILL-HEALTH
SINCE 1945
1 Expenditure on health as percentage of
GNP 1960-65
2 Expenditure on health as percentage of
GNP 1990-95
3 Infant mortality rates 1990-95
4 Food consumption and major famines
since the 1940s
278 STANDARDS OF LIVING SINCE 1945
1 Distribution of wealth
2 Human Development Index
3 Literacy and education 1995
280 THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
SINCE 1945
1 Carbon dioxide emissions and threatened
coastlines
2 Threat to the Ganges delta
3 Deforestation in the 20th century
4 Acid deposition and urban pollution
1990s
5 Water pollution since the 1960s
282 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
SINCE 1945
1 Car ownership and production
2 Passenger kilometres (miles) flown 1994
3 Computer ownership
284 INDEX
308 BIBLIOGRAPHY
312 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
FOREWORD
There could be no more opportune time than the
start of the third millennium AD to produce an
entirely new atlas of world history. Not only does
this symbolic (if arbitrary) moment provoke a mood of
public retrospection, but the paee of global change itself
demands a greater awareness of "whole world" history.
More than 20 years have passed since a major new atlas
of this kind was published in the English language. In
that period there has been an explosion of new research
into the histories of regions outside Europe and North
America, and a growing awareness of how parochial our
traditional approach to history has been. In this changed
environment, the demand for an un-biased overview of
world history has steadily grown in schools and colleges,
and among the general reading public.
Several developments within the study of academic
history promote the seriousness with which histories of
the world are now taken. First the accumulation of
knowledge about the past of different nations has engen-
dered excessive specialization. The sheer volume of
publications and data about details of the past stimulates
demand from students, scholars and a wider public for
guidelines, meaning and "big pictures" that world
history, with its unconfined time frame and wider geo-
graphical focus, is positioned to meet.
Secondly the broadening of traditional history's central
concerns (with states, warfare and diplomacy) in order
to take account of modern concerns with, for example,
ecology, evolutionary biology, botany, the health and
wealth of populations, human rights, gender, family
systems and private life, points the study of history
towards comparisons between Western and non-Western
cultures and histories.
Thirdly young people now arrive at universities with
portfolios of know-ledge and aroused curiosities about a
variety of cultures. They are less likely than their prede-
cessors to study national let alone regional and parochial
histories. Schools and universities need to provide access
to the kind of historical understanding that will satisfy
their interests. To nourish the cosmopolitan sensibility
required for the next millennium, history needs to be
widened and repositioned to bring the subject into fruit-
ful exchange with geography and the social sciences.
Barriers between archaeology, ancient, classical,
medieval, early modern, contemporary and other "pack-
ages" of traditional but now anachronistic histories arc
being dismantled.
Unsurprisingly, the implications of "globalization" for
hitherto separ-ated communities, disconnected
economies and distinctive cultures have been analysed
by social scientists. They serve governments who are
uneasily aware that their powers to control economies
and societies nominally under their jurisdiction are
being eroded, both by radical improvements in the tech-
nologies for the transportation of goods and people-
around the world and by the vastly more efficient com-
munications systems that diffuse commercial
intelligence, political messages and cultural information
between widely separated populations.
A NEW PERSPECTIVE ON WORLD HISTORY
As the world changes at an accelerated pace, for problem
after problem and subject after subject, national frame-
works for political action and academic enquiry are
recognized as unsatisfactory. Historians are being asked
for a deeper perspective on the technological, political
and economic forces that are now transforming tradi-
tional frameworks for human behaviour, and reshaping
personal identities around the world. Philip's Adas of
World History has been designed, constructed and
written by a team of professional historians not only for
the general reader but to help teachers of history in
schools and universities to communicate that perspec-
tive to their pupils and students.
World histories cannot be taught or read without a clear
comprehension of the chronologies and regional para-
meters within which different empires, states and
peoples have evolved through time. A modern historical
atlas is the ideal mode of presentation for ready refer-
ence and for the easy acquisition of basic facts upon
which courses in world history can be built, delivered
and studied. Such atlases unify history with geography.
They "encapsulate" knowledge by illuminating the sig-
nificance of locations for seminal events in world history.
For example a glance at maps on pages 78 and 116-7 will
immediately reveal why explorers and ships from
western Europe were more likely {before the advent of
steam-powered ships) to reach the Americas than sailors
from China or India. More than any other factor it was
probably a matter of distance and the prevailing winds
on the Atlantic that precluded Asian voyages to the
Americas.
Historical atlases should be accurate, accessible and
display the unfurling chronology of world history in
memorable maps and captions. The team of historians,
cartographers and editors who collaborated in the con-
struction of Philip's Adas of World History set out to
produce a popular work of reference that could be
adopted for university and school courses in world
history. In the United States and Canada such courses
are already commonplace and the subject is now spread-
ing in Britain, Europe, Japan and China. New textbooks
appear regularly. American journals dealing with world
history publish debates of how histories designed to
cover long chronologies and uneonfined geographies
might be as rigorous and as intellectually compelling as
more orthodox histories dealing with individuals,
parishes, towns, regions, countries and single continents.
The editors attempted to become tarn i liar with as many
course outlines as possible.
Their plans tor the atlas were informed by the ongoing,
contemporary debate (largely North American) about
the scale, scope and nature of world history. For
example, they were aware that most "model" textbooks
in world history are usually constructed around the
grand themes of "connections" and "comparisons"
across continents and civilizations, and that a scientifi-
cally informed appreciation of environmental,
evolutionary and biological constraints on all human
activity are regarded as basic to any understanding of
world his ton'.
Through its carefully designed system of cross-referenc-
ing, this atlas promotes the appreciation of
"connections", "contacts" and "encounters" promoted
through trade, transportation, conquest, colonization,
disease and botanical exchanges and the diffusion of
major religious beliefs. It also aims to facilitate "com-
parisons" across space and through time of the major
forces at work in world history, ineluding warfare, revo-
lutions, state formation, religious conversion, industrial
development, scientific and technological discoveries,
demographic change, urbanization and migration.
Histories or atlases of the world arc potentially limitless
in their geographical and chronological coverage.
Publications in the field are inevitably selective and as
William McNeill opined: "Knowing what to leave out is
the hallmark of scholarship in world history".
History in its broadest context
As I write this foreword conflict escalates in the Middle
East. The crisis in the Middle East features in Part 5:
"The Twentieth ( lentury", but in the atlas it is also set in
the context not just of our times, but of the whole span
of history. The atlas opens with "The Human Revolution;
5 million years ago to 1(1.000 uc" placed within an inno-
vative opening section dealing largely with archaeological
evidence for the evolution of tools and other artefacts, as
well as the transition from bunting to farming in all the
com incuts except Antarctica from around 10.000 ec
This first section also covers connections and compar-
isons across the first civilizations in Mesopotamia, the
Indus Valley, Egypt. China and Mesoamerica and South
America as well as those later and more familiar empires
of Greece. India, China and Rome. Vet the editors have
also ensured that small countries (such as Korea), impor-
tant but often forgotten traders and explorers (such as
the Vikings), and the nomadic peoples of Central Asia,
the Americas and Africa have found their place in this
comprehensive atlas of world history.
Furthermore, coverage of the world wars of the 20th
century, the Great Depression, the rise of communism
and fascism , decolonization and the end of the Cold War
and the events of the 1990s makes the atlas into a dis-
tinctive work of first references for courses in current
affairs and contemporary history. Facts, brief analyses
and illuminating maps of such seminal events in world
history as the transition to settled agriculture, the inven-
tions of writing and printing, the birth of religions, the
Roman Empire. Song China, the discovery of the
Americas, the Scientific, French and Industrial
Revolutions, the foundation of the Soviet Union and of
communist China are all carefully chronicled and repre-
sented on colourful maps drawn using the latest
cartographic technology. Although any general atlas of
world history will, and should, give prominence to such
traditional, historical themes as the rise and decline of
empires, states and civilizations, a serious effort has been
made wherever possible in the atlas to accord proper
emphasis to the communal concerns of humankind,
including religion, economic welfare, trade, technology,
health, the status of women and human rights.
The Philips Atlas can be used easily to find out about a
significant event (The Anglican Revolution), the hist ory
of defined places and populations (India wider the
Mugiuds 1526-1765), religious transitions (The
Reformation and Counter Reformation in Europe
1517—164fi), or social movements on a world scale
(World I'oputation Growth and Urbanisation
IlWO-1914). Nevertheless the atlas has also been
designed in the context of a remarkable revival in world
history, which is now underway, and which represents
an exciting alternative to histories narrowly focused on
the experience of national communities. World history
offers chronologies, perspectives and geographical para-
meters which aim to attenuate the excesses of ethnicity,
chauvinism and condescension. The length and breadth
of an atlas of world history covering all continents, and a
chronology going back twelve millennia, can work to sep-
arate the provincial from the universal, the episodic from
the persistent. It can expose the decline as well as the
rise of societies, nations, cultures and civilizations. In so
far as this atlas succeeds in these goals, and thus con-
tributes to the widespread aspiration for an education in
world history, it can also help nurture a cosmopolitan
sensibility for the new millennium.
Patrick K. O'Brien FBA
Institute of Historical Research, I 'Diversity of London
THE ANCIENT WORLD
The first humans evolved in Africa around two million years ago. By
9000 BC their descendants had spread to most parts of the globe and in
some areas were beginning to practise agriculture. From around 4000 Be
the first civilizations developed, initially in the Near East and India and
subsequently in China, Mesoamerica and South America. In the centuries
that followed, to AD 500, many states and empires rose and fell.
▼ The world was ml ccdoniied
in a tingle movement; there
were of lent two major episodes
In Ihe lint, between 1 8 mSlion
ond 300,000 |Mn ago, •orfy
Homo spread from Africa as for
ik China and western Europe. In
the second, the descendants ol
taffy Homo were replaced by
teptesenlotHes of modern
, Homo sapiens, who
i Australia by 60,000 and
the Americas by M, 000 years
ago. During the whole af this
period Ihe migration of humans
wosgrtotiy affected by o
number of ki ages, when sea
bmbUlo reveal land
"bridges' that in later years
b^ome submerged.
Some five to eight million years ago, a speeies
of small African primates began walking
upright. While there are many theories about
the advantages conferred by moving on two legs
rather than four, there is general agreement that
the success of the hominid line (humans and their
ancestors) is due in part to the adoption of this
iie« method ' ii locomotion, between five and one
million years ago, hominid species proliferated in
East Africa and southern Africa, giving rise by 1.8
million years ago to the new genus, //onto, to
which we ourselves belong (inu/i / ).
The development by Htmui of stone tools - and,
we may presume, tools that have nor survived,
made of other materials such as bone and wood -
was a major advance in human evolution, allowing
our ancestors to engage in activities for which they
lacked the physical capabilities. This ability to
develop technology to overcome our physical
limitations has enabled us to develop from a small
and restricted population of African apes to a
species that dominates even' continent except
Antarctica and has even reached the moon,
between 1.8 million and 300,000 years ago.
members of our genus colonized much of temperate
Europe and Asia as well as tropical areas, aided by
their ability to use fire and create shelter. By
'KM HI no the only parts of the globe which modern
humans - //onto sapiens - had not reached were
some remote islands and eircumpolar regions.
A With the development ol agriculture
ond settled communities there was o
growing need for storage. Pottery
began lo be mode on o wide scale in
order lo meet this need, but it obo
served os a vehicle lor human artistic
activity. This Maya cylindrical pottery
vessel depicts players in a ballgame
thai was on importonl ritual activity
throughout ihe anrienl civilizations of
Mesoomerko A standard but os yet
undecipheted text in the complex
Maya hieroglyphic writing runs round
the top of the vessel
1 COIONIZATKW OF IHE WOULD 1 .8 MILLION TUBS 100 10 1 0,000 IC
PJ WW WwIM Of (Off NJMKH PJ MB (HHUld Bf tOtf nvm
S« I rnAonywsogt 1 i into to 3O0.DO0 y*n
*w igkuMd IV natai
tOO.ODOn lO.OOOer
FHOM HUNTING TO FA It MING
In lf>.(HH> mi the world was inhabited solely by
groups who lived by limning and gathering wild
foods. Within the succeeding S.OOII years, however,
much of the world was transformed {map J).
People in many parts of the world began to produce
their own food, domesticating and selectively
breeding plant*, and animals farming supported
larger and more settled communities, allowing the
accumulation of stored food surpluses - albeit with
the counterpoised risks involved in clearing areas
of plants and animals thai had formerly been a
source of hack-up food In lean years. Agricultural
communities expanded in many regions, for
example colonizing Europe and South Asia, and in
doing so radically changed the landscape.
▲ Rock paintings, such as these "X-ray
style" figures from Nourlangie in
Australia's Northern Territory, provide a
fascinating record of the everyday
world of hunter-gatherers. They also
give some insight into the rich spiritual
and mythological life of the people
who created them.
FIRST CIVILIZATIONS
As the millennia passed there was continuing
innovation in agricultural techniques and tools,
with the domestication of more plants and animals
and the improvement by selective breeding of those
already being exploited. These developments
increased productivity and allowed the colonization
of new areas. Specialist pastoral groups moved into
previously uninhabited, inhospitable desert regions.
Swamps were drained in Mesoamerica and South
America and highly productive raised fields were
constructed in their place. Irrigation techniques
allowed the cultivation of river valleys in otherwise
arid regions, such as Mesopotamia and Egypt.
High agricultural productivity supported high
population densities, and towns and cities grew up,
often with monumental public architecture.
However, there were also limitations in these
regions, such as an unreliable climate or river
regime, or a scarcity of important raw materials
(such as stone), and there was often conflict
between neighbouring groups. Religious or secular
leaders who could organize food storage and
redistribution, craft production, trade, defence and
social order became increasingly powerful. These
factors led to the emergence of the first
civilizations in many parts of the world between
around 4000 and 200 bg (maps 3 and 4 overleaf).
A surplus of agricultural produce was used in these
civilizations to support a growing number of
specialists who were not engaged in food
production: craftsmen, traders, priests and rulers,
as well as full-time warriors - although the majority
of soldiers were normally farmers.
Specialists in some societies included scribes.
The development of writing proved a major
advance, enabling vast quantities of human
knowledge and experience to be recorded, shared
and passed on. Nevertheless, in most societies
literacy was confined to an elite - priests, rulers
and the scribes they employed - who used it as a
means of religious, political or economic control.
In most parts of the world, the belief that there
should be universal access to knowledge recorded
in writing is a recent phenomenon.
RITUAL AND RELIGION
Although without written records it is impossible to
reconstruct details of the belief systems of past
societies, evidence of religious beliefs and ritual
activities abounds, particularly in works of art,
monumental structures and grave offerings.
■ man ggwxosi Z3<kbk
3 7000* ^| 5000K ■3000k
■ Promta 3000k
3 HwiWDnltisBS 3OJ0 K
reotti 3000k
■4 Forming developed in many
parts of the world from around
1 0,000 !C. Differences in the
locally available plants and
animals and in local conditions
gave rise to much variation
between regions. Domestic
animals, for example, played on
important part in Okj World
agriculture, whereas farmers in
Mesoamerica and North America
relied heavily an wild animals
and crops such as beans for
pcolein. A settled lifestyle usually
depended on the practice of
agriculture. However, in some
oreas, such as the Pacific coast of
North America, an abundant
supply of wild resources allowed
settled communities to develop
without agriculture.
► Intensive and highly
productive agriculture gave rise
10 dvfcec 1 societies in
Mesopotamia, Egypl and
norttwn Indk in the 4lh and'
3rd millennia (C and in China
by 1700 k.
► Between 1200 ond S00 K
mrifeed societies were
established in the Ameritos. By
this time the earty states of
Eurasia and Africa hod declined
and been replaced by others,
such OS die Persian Empire,
Minoon and Mycenoeon Greece
and the Zhou state in China
Ritual and religion were a powerful spur to the
creation of monumental architecture hy literate
urhan societies such as the Egyptians, Greeks and
Romans, but also in smaller societies dependent on
agriculture, such as the prehistoric inhabitants of
Europe who huilt the megalithie tombs, or the
moundbuilders of North America, Monuments also
reflected other factors, such as a desire for prestige
or to affirm territorial rights. Although such
building activity implied the ability to mobilize
large numbers of people, this did not necessarily
require hierarchical social control; it could be
achieved within the framework of a community led
by elders or priests.
£^U 3 CMLttAtWHs t. 3000- 1 700 K
qrY-SMJES^- ^iii ' J™ 1
A Scenes (rem the life and 'former
lives' of Buddha (c. 563-483 Kl ore
among those decorating the jftipo ol
Amarovoti in southern India. The sttipa
dates mostly from ihe 2nd century to,
by which time several major religions
- Hinduism, Zotoastrianism, Judaism ,
Buddhism and Christianity - had
developed and begun to spread
through Asia and Europe.
Concern with the proper disposal of the dead
was displayed from Neanderthal times, more than
5(),(MH) years ago. In the burial or other treatment
u!' the body regarded as appropriate (such as
cremation or exposure), the dead were often
accompanied by grave offerings. These could range
from food or small items of personal dress, to large
numbers of sacrificed relatives or retainers as in
tombs dating from the .Ird millennium bc: in Egypt
and the 2nd millennium n<; in Shang China. The
offerings might be related to life after death, for
which the deceased needed to be equipped, but
also frequently reflected aspects of the dead
person *s social position in life.
< New regions became caughl up in
ihe expansion ol states; Korea and
parts ol Central Asia fell la the Chinese
Han Empire, Europe was swept up hy
ihe Roman Empire, and the North
Americon southwest tome under Ihe
cultural influence af Mesoomer icon
states. Elsewhere, however, formers,
herders and hunter-gather ers continued
their traditional lifestyle, affected lo
varying degrees by iheir civilized
neighbours, who regarded them as
"barbarians" Such "barbarians" could
turn ihe tide ol empires; Central Asian
nomads were the periodic scourge ol
Wesl, South and East Asia for
thousands af years, and Germanic
confederacies, with Central Asians,
brought dawn ihe Western Roman
Empire in the middle of the 1st
millennium to.
Grave offerings often provide valuable clues
about past social organization. They also point to
the important part played by artisans in the
development of civilized communities, in particular
producing prestige items for use by the elite and
manufactured goods to be traded in exchange for
vital raw materials. In developed agricultural
societies, craft production was unlikely to be a full-
time pursuit for more than a handful of individuals,
but this did not prevent high standards being
reached in many communities.
Unlike pottery, which was made by the majority
of settled communities, and stone, used for tools
worldwide from very early times, metahvorking did
not develop in all parts of the globe, due in part to
the distribution of ores. Initially metal artefacts
tended to be prestige objects, used to demonstrate
individual or community status, but metal was soon
used for producing tools as well. The development
of techniques for working iron, in particular, was a
major breakthrough, given the abundance and
widespread distribution of iron ore.
STATES AND EMPIRES
By about 500 bc ironworking was well established
in Europe. West and South Asia, and in parts of
East Asia and Africa. States had developed in most
of these regions at least a thousand years before,
but for a variety of reasons the focal areas of these
entities had changed over the course of time
(map 4). The formerly fertile lower reaches of the
Euphrates, cradle of the Mesopotamia n civilization,
had suffered salutation, and so the focus had shifted
north to the competing Assyrian and Babylonian
empires. In India the primary civilization had
emerged along the Indus river system; after its fall,
the focus of power and prosperity shifted to the
Ganges Valley, which by the 3rd century BC was the
centre of the Maury an Empire.
Europe was also developing native states, and by
the 1 st century AB much of Europe and adjacent
regions of Asia and Africa were united through
military conquest by the Romans. The rise and
expansion of the far-reaching Roman Empire
was paralleled in the east by that of the equally
vast Chinese Han Empire {map 5).
Military conquest was not, however, the only
means by which large areas were united. The
Andean region, for example, was dominated in
the 1st millennium BC by the Chavin culture,
seemingly related to a widely shared religious
cult centred on a shrine at Chavin dc Iluantar, A
complex interplay of political, economic,
religious and social factors determined the
pattern of the rise and fall of states.
On the fringes of the human world, pioneers
continued to colonize new areas, developing
ways of life to enable them to settle in the
eircumpolar regions and the deserts of Arabia
and to venture huge distances across uncharted
waters to settle on the most remote Pacific
islands. By ad 500 the Antarctic was the only
continent still unpeopled.
4HwchntiMliwKofihe
undent wot Id provided o milieu
in which the sciences and
letbnology thrived. The
Babylonians. Indians and
Greeks, lor example, developed
mathematics and astronomical
knowledge la a high Itvel, while
the Chinese pioneered advances
in a number of lidos, among
them metallurgy and mining
technology The Romans were
olso skilled innovators,
particularly in engineering,
where in the public domain they
built magnificent roads and
aqueducts, such as the Pont du
Gard In France, pictured here.
▼ The burials ol important
people were often lavishly
furnished with spectacular works
of craftsmanship. The body ol
Princess Oou Won ol the Hon
kingdom ol Zbongsbnn in China
was buried in lbs 2nd century n:
in this suit made of jade plaques
bound together with gold thread.
In Chinese belief jade was linked
to immortality, ond subs such os
this were intended to preserve
the body of the deceased
THE HUMAN REVOLUTION:
5 MILLION YEARS AGO to 10,000 bc
1 Continuous gene flow model
60,000^
yrsojo
if
HT1 III-
20.000
HSOJO
100,000
I
2 DlSOUTt EVOUJTKN MODEL
liiiil
A Some experts believe that modern
humons t vol veil from the early hominids ia
parallel In Africa, tela and Europe (1 1.
Himeiret, il is more neneroly ottepled Ihal
they originated in Africa and then spread -
al the en pens* of other haminid speiies 17}
► The last of Ihe inhabited continents lo be
colonized by hominids was Sout+i America
probably between 1 4,000 and
1 1,000 years ago.
Truces of the curliest ancestors of humans, the
Australopithecines, have been found in Africa, dating
from between five and two million years ago when the
forests had given way in piaees to more open savanna
{map il A line of footprints discovered al Laetoli is vivid
evidence that these now extinct early hnminids (human
ancestors belonging to the genera Australopithecus and
lltimo) walked upright, llominid fossils from this remote
period are rare, since the creatures themselves were not
numerous. The remains that have been found probably
belong to different species' some, such as A tvbustus and
A liaisci, lived on plant material; others, such as the smaller
A qfrioanus, ate a more varied diet. By two million years
ago the hominids included Homo habilix, small creatures
whose diet probably included kills scavenged from carni-
vores. Unlike their Australopithccinc cousins, //. Italiilin had
begun to manufacture stone tools (called "Oldowan" after
the key site of Olduvai), roughly chipped to form a service-
able edge for slicing through hide, digging and other
activities which these small hominids could not perform
with their inadequate teeth and nails. These developments,
along with physical adaptation, were crucial in the amazing
success of humans compared with other animal species.
The move into temperate regions
By 1.8 million years ago this success was already becoming
apparent in the rapid spread of hominids well outside their
original tropical home, into temperate regions as far afield
as East Asia {map 2). This move was made possible by a
number of developments. Hominids began to make new and
more efficient tools, including the multipurpose handaxc.
which extended their physical capabilities. A substantial
increase in body size allowed representatives of Homo to
compete more successfully with other scavengers, and by
500, (100 years ago our ancestors were hunting as well as
scavenging, using Wooden spears and probably fire. Fire was
also important in providing warmth, light and protection
against predators, and for cooking food, thus making it
easier to chew and digest. To cope with the temperate
climate, hominids used eaves and rock shelters such as
those found at the famous Chinese site of Zhoukoudian.
There had been a gradual cooling of ihe global climate,
with ice sheets developing in the Arctic by 2.4 million years
ago. Around 900,000 years ago this process had accelerated,
giving rise lo a pattern of short ice ages approximately every
100,000 years. These ice ages were interspersed with short
phases of temperatures similar to or higher than those of
today, and much longer periods of intermediate tempera-
tures. The pattern of ice advance and retreat had a major
effect not only on the distribution of hominids and other
mammals but also on the preservation of their fossils, so the
picture that we have today is at best partial. During warm
periods, hominids penetrated as far north as southern
Kngland; in cooler periods, sea levels fell and many coastal
areas thai arc now submerged became habitable.
1 Early hominids
AB^HddotQ
1 Sis ah
A wly J^M^rtfirm
A ' ETHIOPIA
(A B^WSS, 4jrfl^nWvi
AAA " '
1 8BaOmo n
t otihA?, A mHwois}
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w i A^"* c rurtwnn
A Ad B Turkana' "\/ Koobi FwoA AADD
ChesowariiaAB "
{Itttkom)
A rijlBf rctosr AiBm*r|»rftMinfc
AatoMMuL
a KENYA '***"
A.wtbqKVi}
B [irrciki HairiL} ih tatftj
° oOUuvoiADB
M tap tamo iti .vpsfer
"LaOloliAB
fit tfKHftl , H rwWfeTr'.BS,
~L TANZANIA
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f
-
Al SwarrtjTsni,*..-; i
5**rMonrei n A AQ
AIM
A Many hominid species Flourished in sirb-Sofiaran
Africa berxwn free and one mdWi years ago.
but most died out Modern humans ate the
only surviving descendant
3 Colonization of the gloie
_ | Woaimum enrerti nf rce sriEfiis
Lit. 000 K
_j Ilfii: rutposod ii'i \vw m Ml
c. 14.000 k
^^^ IworoDfton
_] diet kmomI try H. osmrtoWjisj
^] »fM OHuH t» H. MflW
A SenVsrwflsrtB
i-, lursil sire
&■ Entfrrtsik
YwmmMJ TropkaiConar
!■■{<'■:•■"
2 THE SPREAD OF HOMINIDS
__
(costW ol lime ol flood manmurc
Spent n rt. ww its yoot nDflimfi!
-*■
Mfoff 1 rrAon ytors coc
-*•
offer 1 mSon years ago
•
Hamnkt tones dared befbre 1 nidlicKi years ago
□
Horrnid rtmrjas dmd Wore 200,000 s
■H.etyosfaf
□
rtomhiid renioms dglid befwe 200,000 k
<jt fiffltfijS
□
Homimd remains dmed before ZO0.O0Q t: -
- K rwWDjfljms
A
Camp/ouupQiion sice
X
13 site
•
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*
NaoraidrMe ndntry lit
♦
NMnterW ire after 200,000 sc
Tropic o/ Capricorn
AUSTRALIA
The emergence of modern humans
Around 100,000 years ago two hominid species were living
in the eastern Mediterranean region. One was the Asian rep-
resentative of the Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis) -
descended from H. heidelbergensis - who inhabited Europe
and West Asia from some time after 200,000 BC; the other
was an early form of Homo sapiens (modern humans) who
had first appeared some 20,000 years earlier in southern
Africa. By 40,000 bc modern humans were to be found
throughout the previously inhabited world - Africa, Asia and
Europe - and in Australia (map 3).
Opinions are divided as to how this came about. One
school of thought holds that the descendants of the first
hominids to colonize these various regions had evolved
in parallel (diagram 1); there was continuous gene flow
between adjacent regions, spreading adaptations and
changes throughout the hominid world but with regional dif-
ferences also present, as in the modern races. This view sees
the emergence of modern humans as a global phenomenon.
The alternative and more generally accepted view is that
the original colonists developed into different regional
species (diagram 2). Modern humans emerged in Africa and
were able to spread at the expense of other hominids, pro-
gressively colonizing West Asia by 100,000 bc, East Asia and
Australia by 60,000 BC and Europe by 40,000 BC. Whether
they interbred with the hominids they displaced or simply
extinguished them is unclear, but almost certainly Homo
sapiens was the only surviving hominid by about 30,000 bc.
From Asia modern humans moved into the Americas,
crossing the Bering Strait during an ice age when the land
bridge of Beringia was exposed, and migrating southwards
later. The date of this colonization is still hotly debated, but
the earliest incontrovertible evidence of humans in the
Americas south of the glaciated area comes after the ice
sheets began to retreat - about 14,000 years ago.
Cultural development
Early modern humans and their Neanderthal contempo-
raries used similar tools and seem to have been culturally
related. However, although Neanderthals and even earlier
hominids may have communicated with sounds to some
extent, H. sapiens was the first hominid to be able to com-
municate in a fully developed spoken language. This was a
critical development, making possible detailed planning and
discussion of group activities and interactions and, more
importantly, allowing the knowledge acquired through indi-
vidual experience to be shared and transmitted from
generation to generation.
From about 100,000 years ago many aspects of human
consciousness and aesthetic sense began to evolve, as evi-
denced by the finely shaped and consciously planned stone
tools of both Neanderthals and modern humans, and by the
beginning of burial. The emergence of human consciousness
becomes ever more apparent in the art that dates from
about 35,000 BC, and very probably earlier in Australia.
Archaeologists have found exquisite figurines depicting both
humans and animals, as well as magnificent animal and
abstract paintings and engravings on the walls of caves and
rock shelters. The most famous of these finds are in south-
ern France and adjacent Spain, but early art has been found
all over the world, with fine concentrations in Australia,
Africa and Russia.
▲ Until recently the immediate
descendants of Homo habik were all
classified as Homo erectvs, but it now seems
more probable that there were a number of
roughly contemporary hominid species:
H. ergaster in Africa, H. erectus in East Asia
and H. heidehrgemsm Europe. The
paucity of hominid fossils makes their
classification extremely difficult, and there
are major and frequent changes in the
interpretation of the limited evidence.
O FROM HUNTING TO FARMING 12,000 bc-ad 500 pages 18-27
FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:
ASIA 12,000 bc-ad 500
1 Hunter -gatherers m Asia
O HLnfef-^ctherfir site
^| 4na of ssntonnnr 14.000— BOOO m
DisMmtion oF wild bads c 1D.0O0 «C:
roob ond lubos [yams fft)
CM*
ft
▲ Animal bones are much more likely to
be preserved than plant remains, so the
archaeologist's picture of past subsistence
probably underestimates the importance
of plant foods. Ibis is particularly true of
tubers, roots, leafy vegetables and fruits,
which must have provided the bulk of the
diet in areas such as Southeast Asia. We
have a clearer picture of the development
of early agriculture in areas such as China
and West Asia, where cereals (rice, millet,
wheat and barley) and pulses (beans, peas
and the like) were the principal food plants.
T Living in sedentary settlements made
ft possible to store cereals and other plant
foods, including nuts, to provide some
insurance against lean seasons or years.
It also enabled people to accumulate
possessions that today provide valuable
evidence of their way of life.
Evidence from many parts of the world indicates that
during the final millennia of the last glacial age -
between around 16,000 and 12,000 years ago - the
range of foods eaten by humans broadened considerably. In
the "Fertile Crescent" of West Asia (the arc of land com-
prising the Levant, Mesopotamia and the Zagros region) wild
wheat and barley provided an abundant annual harvest that
enabled hunter-gatherers to dwell year-round in permanent
settlements such as Kebara (map 1). Nuts and other wild
foods, particularly gazelle, were also important here.
Around 12,000 BC the global temperature began to rise,
causing many changes. Sea levels rose, flooding many
coastal regions; this deprived some areas of vital resources
but in others, such as Japan and Southeast Asia, it created
new opportunities for fishing and gathering shellfish.
Changes occurred in regional vegetation, with associated
changes in fauna. Throughout Asia, particularly in the
southeast, plant foods became increasingly important.
In the Levant wild cereals at first spread to cover a much
larger area, increasing the opportunities for sedentary com-
munities to develop. A cold, dry interlude around 9000 to
8000 BC caused a decline in the availability of wild cereals
~ — © © «P e-
tfcft
\ * % I
2 The birth of farming in the Fertile Crescent
Scvecd of taming: DHoWbinl
| biWOOK 223 <*«'«* Finds of Dttadn
3 by'OOOit rid sheep <tnd goon [f*
Adgol
• Ecrly ngncullwDl MPriwionf
and the abandonment of many of these settlements, but
communities in well-watered areas began to plant and
cultivate the cereals they had formerly gathered from the
wild (map 2). By 8000 BC, when conditions again became
more favourable, these first farming communities had grown
in size and number and they began to spread into other
suitable areas. Initially these new economies combined
cultivated cereals with wild animals, but around 7000 BC
domesticated sheep and goats began to replace gazelle and
other wild game as the main source of meat.
Subsequent millennia saw the rapid spread of farming
communities into adjacent areas of West Asia (map 3).
They appeared over much of Anatolia and northern
Mesopotamia by about 7000 BC, largely confined to areas
where rain-fed agriculture was possible. Agricultural com-
munities also emerged around the southeastern shores of
the Caspian Sea, and at Mehrgarh on the western edge of
the Indus plains. Pottery, which began to be made in the
Zagros region around this time, came into widespread use
in the following centuries, and copper also began to be
traded and worked. Cattle, domesticated from the aurochs
(Bos primigenius) in the west and from native Indian cattle
(Bos namadicus) in South Asia, were now also important.
In Anatolia cattle seem to have played a part in religion as
well as in the economy: for example, rooms in the massive
settlement at (Jatal Hoyiik in Anatolia were decorated with
paintings of enormous cattle and had clay cattle-heads with
real horns moulded onto the walls.
Diversification of agriculture
By 5000 BC the development of more sophisticated agricul-
tural techniques, such as irrigation and water control, had
enabled farming communities to spread into southern
Mesopotamia, much of the Iranian Plateau and the Indo-
Iranian borderlands. It was not until the 4th millennium BC,
however, that farmers growing wheat and keeping sheep,
goats and cattle moved into the adjacent Indus Valley and
thence southward into peninsular India. The development
of rice and millet cultivation by the Indus civilization
(pages 28-29) led to a further spread of agriculture into the
Ganges Valley and the south of India.
Eastern India also saw the introduction of rice cultiva-
tion from Southeast Asia, while sites in the northeast may
owe their development of agriculture to contact with north-
ern China. In the latter region farming probably began
around 7000 BC and was well established by 5000 BC
(map 4). In two areas in the Huang He Basin, at sites such
as Cishan and Banpo, communities emerged whose
ATLAS 0) f OHO HtSTOiT: f*l!
economies depended mi cultivated millet, along with fruits
and vegetables, chickens and pigs, while further south, in
the delta of the Yangtze River, wet rice cultivation began.
Hcmudu is the best known of these early rice-farming
communities: here waterlogging has preserved finely con-
structed wooden houses and a range uf bone tools used in
cultivation, as well as carbonized rice husks and the
remains of other water-loving plant foods such as lotus. Here
also was found the first evidence of laci[uerware; a red*
lacquered wooden howl. Although water buffalo and pigs
were kept in this southern region, both hunted game and
fish continued to play an important role in the economy.
By 3000 nc wet rice agriculture was becoming estab-
lished in southern China, northern Thailand and Taiwan,
and millet cultivation in northern China. Communities in
the northwest also grew wheat and barley, introduced from
the agricultural com muni ties of West or Central Asia. In
■Southeast Asia tubers and fruits had probably been inten-
sively exploited for millennia. By 3000 DC wet rice was also
grown in this region and buffalo, pigs and chickens were
raised, hut wild resources remained important.
The inhabitants of Korea and Japan continued to rely on
their abundant wild sources of food, including fish, shellfish,
deer, nuts and tubers. Often they were able to live in per-
manent settlements. The worlds earliest known pottery hail
been made in Japan in the late glacial period: a range of
elaborately decorated potters' vessels and figurines was pro-
duced in the later hunter-gatherer settlements of the
archipelago. Trade between communities circulated desir-
able materials such as jadeite and obsidian (volcanic glass).
Around 1500 tic crops (in particular rice) anil metallurgical
techniques began spreading from China into these regions,
reaching Korea via Manchuria :md thence being taken to
Japan. By ah 300 rice fanning was established throughout
the region with (he exception of the northernmost island,
Hokkaido, home of the Ainu people, where the traditional
hunter-gatherer way of life continued into recent times.
4 The sfrwd of farming in Easi tou
tort uw of c it re" cuftrrtfai:
| -nc
• Imrnl faming aittanenr before 1000 N
^1 mlk
O Initial forming icticmEnl rfttf 3-DOO Eli
^^ Sfnod flf tK'« ismng
• DM^JDm^iflfllfemii4i^3000H
Daierr
»"""<■■ //,
JAPAN
HoUoiJo
ACmdaioa
Oua KkM J?
CM*
.--■4
A Hanpo. a typical wily Chinese forming
setfemoit, contained duelings, starjgt pits
and onimol pens, o communal Ml o
cemelery and ttilrrs in which finely decorated
pottery was fifed. The villagers we
probably alieody keeping silknorms
although moil leirte vete mode ol hemp.
By around 3utWK«tl!ari«tt5wiie often
fortified with tamped earth wife, mptying
intercommunity waif ore Clear signs af
developing social slmfificalion appear at rhh
lime - for example, elile buiiak containing
prestige goods of bronje and imported
malerioEs such as [ode, mode by on
emerging doss ol spetiofel (raftsmen
Following the introduction ol melalurgy
from China during the 1st millennium B(.
Kereo and Jopan also developed o
sophisticated bronze industry.
4 By 4000 K (arming communities
established in many areas ol Asia were
linked by trade Areas ol high agricultural
productivity, such as southern Mesopotamia
were dependent on [rode la obtain me
basic row nuleriak locking in ihe alluvial
environment, such as wood and stone. They
were, however, able to support lull lime
craft specialists producing goods lor eipoti.
partkulotry textiles and fine porter y. as
wel as surplus agricultural produce.
O MESOPOTAMIA ANO THE INIHS REt il( >N 4000-1800 i«: pmc* J.V-J'j O CHINA 1 71)0-11)50 m: ,ki&x .WKJ I
FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:
EUROPE 8000-200 BC
4 From the 6th century It some Celtic
cteJrjonrc begun In benefil bom trade with
file Greeks and Etruscans, their increasing
wealth being reflected in massive hilfocts
cm) splendidly furnished graves, Metal ores
and olher row materials - goods previously
siralaied within Europe - were new
syphoned off by the Mediterranean work! in
exchange fnr luxuries, especially wine and
related artefacts, such os Greek pottery and
i i nut: 11 bronze flagons. These in turn
provided inspiration lor native Celtic
craftsmen: this flogon conn from o rich
grove at DosseYuti, in nonhecstem France.
► By 7D00 IK faming communities were
spreading ham Anatolia into southeast
Europe, bringing wheal, barley, sheep and
goats. Figs and tattle, indigenous la Europe,
were kept, and wild plants and animals were
also exploited by these early farmers.
Farming also spread into neighbouring areas
and by 4(10(1 bc was widespread across the
continent, although the numbers of farmers
were rebtively small. Hie greater port of
Europe was still sparsely inhabited rarest,
onry gradually being cleared lot forming
seltlemeol aver succeeding millennia.
1 The spread of farming in Europe
7000-3S00K
J5S5 •eowRtHtWM'ur'B^c*
rj<500l
A MagotiiliAwgrjcfrjiw
Spread rf lunwig tomimitfiHs:
^B Mirfhrarern/uW-HiJOm
71 tMammvMl-WKI*
j lcMlniHMl-4iBlrX
~] WlHraiBai*iO0-3OT(i
7J msWitMOJSOUK
■ mcrheni«(J-35006
7J fflstenitM-SSMlK
• OTwtcnws
B DevAcat tonrwrs wmkimj cnpis
Itw 5500 k
levies w tnidea rwlcnais
i smm nig Idtfety/fril mm
O icantfussh*
& r/tador.
The postglacial conditions of the period 8000-4000 BC
offered new opportunities to the hunter-gatherers of
Europe. Activity concentrated on coasts, lake margins
and rivers, where both aquatic and land plants and animals
could be exploited; the ecologically less diverse forest inte-
riors were generally avoided Initially groups tended to move
around on rt seasonal basis, but letter more permanent com-
munities were established, with temporary special-purpose
outstations. Dogs, domesticated from wolves, were kept to
aid hunting. Some groups managed their woodlands by judi-
cious use of fire to encourage hazel and other useful plants.
Ei rope's first farmers
From around 7000 BC farming communities began to
appear in Europe imap 1). Early farmers in the southeast
built villages of small square houses and tnade pottery,
tools of polished stone and highly prized obsidian, as well
as ornaments of spondylus shell obtained by trade. Once
established, many of the sites in the southeast endured for
thousands of years, gradually forming tells (mounds of
settlement debris). By 500(1 Btl some eomm unities were
also using simple techniques to work copper.
Between 5500 and 4500 BC pioneering farming groups
rapidly spread across central Europe, settling predominantly
on (he easily worked loess (wind -deposited) river valley
soils. They kept cattle, raised crops and lived in large
timber-framed long houses which often also sheltered their
animals. At first these groups were culturally homogeneous,
but after about 4500 Etc regional groups developed and
farming settlements increased in number, spreading out
from the river valleys.
The hunter-gatherers in the central and western
Mediterranean came into contact with early farmers colo-
nizing southern parts of Italy. They acquired pottery-making
skills and domestic sheep and goats from these colonists,
and later they also began to raise some crops. 15y .1500 BC
communities practising farming but still partly
reliant on wild resources were estab-
lished over most of western
En ro pe . Huge m ega 1 i t h i e
("large stone") tombs d^ ***
were erected, which
acted as territorial
markers affirming community ties to ancestral lands. These
tombs took many forms over the centuries and were asso-
ciated with a variety of rites, generally housing the bones of
many individuals, usually without grave goods.
The list: he metals
By 3500 he a new economic pattern had developed as
innovations emanating from West Asia spread through
Europe via farming communities in the southeast and the
east, on the fringes of the steppe. These included the use of
animals for traction, transport and milk, woolly sheep,
wheeled vehicles and the plough- I'lougji agriculture allowed
new areas and less easily worked soils to lie cultivated, and
there was a general increase in animal husbandry; special-
ist herders also appeared (map 2). Trade, already well
established, now grew in importance, carrying fine flint and
hard stone for axes over long distances in a scries of short
step.-, between communities. Major social changes were
reflected by a significant shift in the treatment of the dead:
in many regions communal burial in monumental tombs
gave way to individual burials with personal grave goods,
often under a harrow. New types of monuments erected in
western areas suggest a change in religious practices, with a
new emphasis on astronomical matters.
From around 2500 lie copper was alloyed with tin to
form brorue. The need for tin, a rare and sparsely distri-
buted metal, provided a stimulus to the further development
of international trade in prestige materials (mutt 3). These
were particularly used as grave goods and votive offerings.
emphasizing the status achieved by their owners. Chiefs
were now buried under massive harmw r s with splendid gold
and bronze grave offerings, while lesser members of society
were interred under harrows in substantial cemeteries.
Command of metal ore sources gave certain communities
pre-eminence, while others derived their importance from
a key position at the nodes of trade routes. The Carpathian
i
**.<^
♦ A*
• a *>i
IhrjeU
fy «£sfc
*%*£»■»
mJWt
•*<
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2 M AGE OF CQFTO 3S00-2000 IC
Won faded Wtre art ond torttennirofrt
lotted (winnodrtifti 90W
D copper A IWir
Mom Beets mo (put ettUMtaffi
Stone tirrks ond alignmerm
A By 3000 ec copper and gold metallurgy
were practised across most of Europe. These
metals were used to make prestige goods
that enhanced the status of high-ranking
individuals. Drinking vessels for alcohol
were also status symbols - Corded Ware in
eastern and northern Europe and, later,
Beakers in central and western Europe.
region enjoyed particular prosperity around this time;
Scandinavia, which lacked indigenous metal ores, never-
theless now became involved in international trade, and by
the late 2nd millennium developed a major bronze industry
based on metal imported in exchange for furs and amber.
Agriculture and livestock also brought wealth to favoured
areas, and there was a major expansion of farming onto light
soils formerly under forest. Substantial field systems mark
the organization of the agrarian landscape in at least some
regions. By the start of the 1st millennium, however, many
of the more marginal areas for agriculture had become
scoured or exhausted and were abandoned.
Warfare and religion
By the late 2nd millennium warfare was becoming a more
serious business. Often settlements were located in defens-
ible positions and fortified. (In previous centuries fortified
centres had been far fewer and more scattered.) However,
until the late centuries bc armed conflict between individual
leaders or raids by small groups remained the established
pattern, rather than large-scale fighting.
A greater range of weapons was now in use, especially
spears and swords, their forms changing frequently in
response to technical improvements and fashion. Bronze
was in abundant supply and made into tools for everyday
use by itinerant smiths. Iron came into use from around
1000 bc and by 600 BC it had largely replaced bronze for
tools and everyday weapons, freeing it for use in elaborate
jewellery and ceremonial armour and weaponry.
Major changes occurred in burial practices and religious
rites. In most areas burial, often under large mounds, was
replaced by cremation, the ashes being interred in urns
within flat graves (urnfields). Funerary rites became more
varied in the Iron Age and many graves - particularly in
wealthy areas - contained lavish goods, as in the cemetery
at Hallstatt in western Austria, which profited from the trade
in salt from local mines. Substantial religious monuments
were no longer built, religion now focusing on natural loca-
tions such as rivers and lakes.
Celtic Europe
During the 1st millennium bc much of France, Germany
and the Alpine region came to be dominated by the Celtic
peoples (map 4), who also settled in parts of Britain, Spain
northern Italy and Anatolia. By the 3rd century BC towns
(known to the Romans as oppida) were emerging in many
parts of Europe, reflecting both increased prosperity and
more complex and larger-scale political organization. In the
west this development was short-lived as Europe west of the
Rhine progressively fell to Roman expansion. In the east and
north, however, Germanic and other peoples continued the
life of peasant agriculture, trade, localized industry and
warfare that had characterized much of the continent for
many centuries.
. .
3 Ironii Age Europe 2500-800 k
Fonihec serflementy
A Od) bub 2500-1300 K
- EodtaT
FMllT!
b before 1300 k
I _|Un*9k)liMl300-B0Olc
Wres iy traded contmorBfes:
ntta 1300 k
■ UrrfWd
omc*
D
am
• iMInrinofln
♦ ItnJdwms
□ fti
-
9*1
. ISicrnlwwn
Q
A £
V " r ". ffio A*
? ...
2 ---'
to o
o
Ob
I S3
_, • ft. UfeUvfwrg B* A
Horn
°
'■- ■■:,.
a a
D
'&&>
%
WW
r'^ „c, .,v,, „
S c o
A Small Kale (hiefdoms emerged in monr
parrs of Europe during the 2nd millennium
it. but their leaders' power wo* limited.
From around 1 300 1(, however, this
situoliofi began to change, culminating in
the larger groupings ol the Iron Age.
▼ Melolwork and, occasionally, people
were sacriliced by the Celts at their sorred
European sites - rivers, lakes and woods.
__
4 Celtic Europe 800-200 bc
tea tjemiiliig from trade: Ukh burials: Hillfwl
~ ittiinwyK A UhcMluyK • Oppidunr, tan)
i MunUfl: A SfhceoluyK •»• Celfci
6th center ec
— *• SncmWvtC
bog bodes mi
I Einisiin arise. SOD K
Cehclenfcby?0aix
O&mtANS
.
u»
tf v
• •Mi«t.lo a • •
O THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 bc-ad 400 pages 54-55
FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:
AFRICA 10,000 bc-ad 500
* ^ htactitfrrtmecthSea
• m i Ti-n-To.no KhwsaCtaris-'X .
"Ouatdoi "■•* «■? » ■•Ewtvflx.*
-a ■(•• J *" _ ■
■ Rim •< _ ■•* • •
-•.
. .'• rWfcnnu
■i J Ujwrj-irrci
fqwffJBf
Postglacial hunter-gatherers
in the 10th-6th kiuinnu ic
I 1 SriimDeseaciDDOK
Likes in the khjo c oQODk
I I fteHinty osm
| PrtswhlGrr tropical roirnoresr
V Htfifci'OOJtww site
* Fishir ond himlei-gttlma Hi
H Arao ofiock ebt
ti Decoraled pottery
1 1 c f ci n
mKnlpnitjo FtJIi
/ r<i**yco P « 1Bra
By 10,000 BC most of Africa was inhabited by hunter-
gatherer groups (map 1). Although generally only
their stone tools survive, the majority of their arte-
facts would have been made of perishable materials such as
wood, leather and plant fibres. At Gwisho in Zambia a large
find of organic objects, including wooden bows and arrows,
bark containers, and leather bags and clothes, provides us
with some insight into what is normally lost. Further infor-
mation on the lives of African hunter-gatherers comes from
their rich rock art, known in many areas of the continent
but particularly in the Sahara and in southern Africa. This
not only depicts aspects of everyday life, such as housing
and clothing, but it also gives a picture of archaeologically
intangible activities such as dancing and traditional beliefs.
With the retreat of the ice sheets around this time con-
ditions became both warmer and wetter, creating new
opportunities for hunter-gatherer communities. Rising sea
levels encouraged the utilization of coastal resources, such
as shellfish in southern Africa. Many groups moved between
the coast and inland sites, exploiting seasonally available
food resources, and people also began to hunt smaller game
in the forests that were spreading into former savanna
regions. In the Sahara belt, largely uninhabited during the
arid glacial period, extensive areas of grassland now devel-
oped and the existing restricted bodies of water expanded
into great lakes, swamps and rivers. These became favoured
areas of occupation, often supporting large permanent set-
tlements whose inhabitants derived much of their livelihood
from fish, aquatic mammals (such as hippos), waterfowl and
water plants, as well as locally hunted game. Similar lake-
side or riverine communities developed in other parts of the
continent, for example around Lake Turkana in East Africa.
Early farming in Africa
Some communities began to manage their resources more
closely: they weeded, watered and tended preferred plants,
and perhaps planted them, and they herded local animals,
particularly cattle but also species such as eland and giraffe
A During glodol periods tropical regions
such as Africa enperiemed considerable
aridity. Wilh tfre reheat el the ice sheets in
temperale regions by oboul 10,000 it, perls
of Africa become warmer and welter, offering
new ecological opportunities to the continent's
population. Postglacial changes were
particularly marked in northern
Africa, where increased humidity
provided conditions favouring
permanent settlements. At
many places pottery (too
fragile to be used by
mobile groups] was
being made from
oround 7500 BC.
>■ A broad band eastwards
from West Africa was ihe original
home ol marry of the plant species
that were taken into cuttivalion.
Here fanning had become well
established by around 1 000 m.
O
I Farming in the 7th-) st millennia k
a
Earv forratg ate
| Wrkflnrxe
n
Edify fwding sta
_J butiush mlel
•
Hmiter^LTtharer sire altar 4000 at HI Hngerrrdter
—
SodremEmiii fuming
| leSf , enser" rod rfw Efopion triors
C"io >ic
ureas of trap domarkcilion.
| pvini
■1
ittflkin
_J odpotm
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: FART 1
(map 2). In the Nile Valley, nut-grass tubers had been inten-
sively exploited since glacial times, and by 11,000 bc cereals
such as sorghum and probably barley were also managed.
Sheep and goats, and some crop plants such as wheat, were
introduced, probably from West Asia. By about 5000 bc
many communities in northern Africa were raising indig-
enous crop plants such as sorghum and keeping domestic
cattle, sheep and goats, though they also continued to hunt
and fish and to gather wild plant foods. Dependence on agri-
culture intensified, domestic resources grew in importance,
and the number of farming communities increased.
From around 4000 bc, however, the Sahara region
became increasingly dry; lakes and rivers shrank and the
desert expanded, reducing the areas attractive for settle-
ment. Many farmers moved southwards into West Africa.
Although harder to document than cereal agriculture, the
cultivation of tubers such as yams and of tree crops such as
oil palm nuts probably began around this time. Local
bulrush millet was cultivated and African rice, also indig-
enous to this region, may well have been grown, although
at present the earliest evidence for its cultivation is from
Jenne-jeno around the 1st century bc. By around 3000 bc
farming communities also began to appear in northern parts
of East Africa.
The spread of metalworking
Around 500 BC metalworking began in parts of West Africa
(map 3). Carthaginians and Greeks had by this time estab-
lished colonies on the North African coast (pages 40-41).
They were familiar with the working of bronze, iron and
gold and were involved in trade across the Sahara, and this
may have been the means by which knowledge of metal-
lurgy reached sub-Saharan Africa. Sites with early evidence
of copperworking, notably Akjoujt, have also yielded objects
imported from North Africa. Egypt, Nubia and Ethiopia were
now working metals and may also have been a source of
technological expertise. Alternatively, the working of gold
and iron may have been indigenous developments: the
impressive terracotta heads and figurines from Nok were
produced by people well versed in smelting and using iron.
Although iron tools were very useful for forest clearance,
agriculture, woodworking and other everyday activities, the
spread of ironworking was at first extremely patchy. While
some areas in both East and West Africa were working iron
as early as the Nok culture around 500 bc, other adjacent
regions did not begin to do so until the early or middle cen-
turies of the first millennium AD (pages 80-81). In some
cases, however, such as the equatorial forests of the Congo
Basin, the absence of early evidence of metallurgy is likely
to reflect the poor preservation of iron objects: ironworking
was probably well established there by the late centuries BC.
based mixed farmers growing cereals that included sorghum
and millet, plus other plants such as cowpeas, beans,
squashes and probably yams.
The interrelations of these settlers with the native
hunter-gatherer groups were varied. Some hunter-gatherers
in areas suitable for agriculture were totally displaced by the
newcomers; others established mutually beneficial relations,
adopting aspects of the intrusive culture, such as pottery or
domestic animals; some groups raided the new farming
communities to lift cattle, sheep or goats. The southwest
was unsuited to the cultivation of the introduced crops, but
hunter-gatherers there began to herd domestic sheep.
By the late 1st millennium ad iron tools had largely
replaced stone tools throughout most of Africa. In some
areas - the Copperbelt in Zambia and Zaire, for example -
copper was being made into ornaments such as bangles,
though gold would not be worked in the southern half of the
continent before the close of the millennium.
T The Greek historian Herodotus reported
attempts by Persian and Phoenician sailors
to circumnavigate Africa in the early 1st
millennium bc. The Carthaginians also
penetrated southwards by sea, establishing
outposts as far south as Mogador and
probably reaching (erne (Heme Island).
Paintings of chariots characteristic of the
1st millennium BC have been found in the
Sahara. Although these do not mark the
actual routes taken by traders across the
desert, they do provide evidence of their
presence. Trans-Saharan trade was
facilitated in the late centuries bc by the
introduction of camels for transport.
7
Iwpicd&JK"
A M«oe
Y*Ka*
CTHO-IA Ai„.
A 1 1 a n l i c
Ocean
Ton**] ^pA Somun Ovfcyn
,.„„„,. A Obobogo
Ovtnta
AMcuJo
(obttof ronxil.
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* al> ' njtoA |-w„™
ftrrtcuiiyifc*
Equator
India n
Oct- Nil
3 Ts AM AND INDUSTRY IN THE 1 ST MILLENNIUM IC
o (jxtvonoi tetany — +■ fa&-S<toui Irak rcwtt
taworLjng:
o (kedolOTy 9 Art oeotiing dicriots
A Ml-S*CBiMiBK
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A A-lfldcedimsx
A HllyCinkMSID
k&colQvrian,
Early farming in southern Africa
The early centuries ad saw the spread into much of the rest
of Africa of ironworking, along with pottery, permanent set-
tlements, domestic animals and agriculture (map 4). By the
2nd century the eastern settlers had reached northern
Tanzania, from where they quickly spread through the
coastal lowlands and inland regions of southeastern Africa,
reaching Natal by the 3rd century. Depending on local con-
ditions and their own antecedents, groups established
different patterns of existence within the broad agricultural
framework: those on the southeastern coast, for example,
derived much of their protein from marine resources such
as shellfish rather than from their few domestic animals;
other groups included specialist pastoralists and broadly
► Archaeological data and linguistic
evidence combine to indicate that a number
of radical innovations - including
agriculture, herding, metalworking and
permanent settlement - were introduced to
the southern half of the continent by the
spread of people from the north who spoke
Bantu languages. Originating in part of
southern West Africa (now eastern Nigeria
and Cameroon), Bantu languages
progressively spread southwards along two
main routes, in the east and west. The areas
these farmers penetrated were inhabited by
hunter-gatherer communities, speaking
Khoisan languages in the south and
probably in other areas.
O STATES AND TRADE IN WEST AFRICA 500-1500 pages 80-81 © STATES AND TRADE IN EAST AFRICA 500-1500 pages 82-83
FROM HUNTING TO FARMING:
THE AMERICAS 12,000-1000 BC
T The antiquity of the first Americans is
still a controversial issue. A few sites, such as
Meadowcroft in North America and Monte
Verde in South America, are sometimes
claimed to hove been occupied well before
1 2,000 bc. However, undisputed evidence of
people at these and other sites dates from
1 2,000 BC onwards, with Fell's Cave in the
extreme southern tip of the continent being
occupied by 9000 bc.
Controversy surrounds the date of human colonization
of the Americas (map 1). During glacial periods when
sea levels fell, the Bering Strait became dry land
(Beringia), allowing humans living in Siberia to move across
into the northernmost part of the Americas. However, sub-
stantial ice sheets would then have prevented further
overland penetration of the continent. Only subsequently,
when the ice sheets melted, could further advances occur -
although it is conceivable that migration into the Americas
took place by sea, down the Pacific coast.
Several glacial cycles occurred following the emergence
of modern humans (pages 16-17), during which, at least
hypothetically, such a migration could have taken place.
Nevertheless, despite (as yet unsubstantiated) claims for
early dates, humans probably reached the far north of the
Americas about 16,000 BC, during the most recent glacial
episode, and spread south when the ice sheets retreated
around 12,000 BC. Not only do the earliest incontrovertibly
dated sites belong to the period 12-10,000 BC, but biological
and linguistic evidence also supports an arrival at this time.
In addition, the adjacent regions of Asia from which
colonists must have come seem not to have been inhabited
until around 18,000 BC.
The colonization of the Americas after 10,000 BC was
extremely rapid, taking place within a thousand years. The
first Americans were mainly big-game hunters, although
occasional finds of plant material show that they had a
varied diet. Their prey were mostly large herbivores: bison
and mammoths in the north, giant sloths and mastodons
further south, as well as horses, camels and others. By about
7000 bc many of these animals had become extinct (except
the bison, which became much smaller in size). Humans
probably played some part in these extinctions, although
changes in climate and environment are also likely factors.
Hunter-gatherers and early farmers
After 8000 BC bison hunting became the main subsistence
base of the inhabitants of the Great Plains of North America
(map 2). Hunting was generally an individual activity, but
occasionally groups of hunters and their families combined
in a great drive to stampede bison over a cliff or into a
natural corral, so that huge numbers could be slaughtered at
once. Elsewhere in North America, a great range of regional
variations developed on the theme of hunting and gather-
ing, and in many areas these ways of life survived until the
appearance of European settlers in recent centuries.
The people of the Arctic regions led a harsh existence.
Their inventiveness enabled them to develop equipment
such as the igloo and the kayak to withstand the intense
cold of winter and of the Arctic seas, and to hunt large
blubber-rich sea mammals such as whales and seals. Other
northern groups relied more on land mammals, notably
caribou. The inhabitants of the Pacific Coast region grew
prosperous on their annual catch of salmon and other
marine and riverine resources. They acquired slaves,
constructed spectacular wooden structures and gave mag-
nificent feasts. In the deserts of the southwest, seasonal
migration enabled people to obtain a diversity of plant,
animal and aquatic foodstuffs at different times of the
year, while the wooded environment of the east also
Pfl c i/i C
Ocean
CCWSI
■* Much of am evidence for early volleys, such as that nt Tehunton, where
agriculture in Mesacrnericu comes from the arid environment has preserved a
intensive investigation of a few highland wealth of plant food remains .
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 1
provided a diverse range of such foods. In areas of abun-
dance, some eastern groups were able to settle in camps for
much of the year, burying their dead in large cemeteries.
These woodland folk also developed long-distance trade
networks, exchanging such prized commodities as copper,
marine shells and fine-quality stone for tool-making. Later,
groups in the Ohio Valley and adjacent areas (the Adena
and Hopewell cultures) elaborated their exchange networks
and raised substantial mounds over their dead. By about
2500-2000 BC some groups in the eastern region were cul-
tivating local plants, such as sunflowers and squashes. In
the southwest similar developments were encouraged by the
introduction around 1000 BC from Mesoamerica of maize, a
high-yielding crop which did not reach the eastern commu-
nities until around ad 800 (pages 108-9).
Developments in Mesoamerica
After 7000 bc hunter-gatherer bands in highland valleys of
Mesoamerica supplemented the foodstuffs they obtained
through seasonal migration by sowing and tending a number
of local plants such as squashes and chillies (map 3). By
5000 BC they were also cultivating plants acquired from
other regions of Mesoamerica. Among these was maize, at
first an insignificant plant with cobs barely 3 cm (1.2 in)
long. However, genetic changes progressively increased the
size of the cobs, and by 2000-1500 BC maize had become
the staple of Mesoamerican agriculture, supplemented by
beans and other vegetables. Villages in the highlands could
now depend entirely on agriculture for their plant foods and
were occupied all year round. As there were no suitable
herd animals for domestication, hunting remained impor-
tant into colonial times; the only domestic animals eaten
were dogs, ducks and turkeys (introduced from North
America). Lowland regions of Mesoamerica followed a some-
what different pattern: coastal and riverine locations
provided abundant wild foods throughout the year, making
year-round occupation possible at an early date. Agriculture,
adopted in these regions later than in the highlands, pro-
vided high yields, particularly in the Veracruz region where
the Olmec culture emerged around 1200 BC (pages 32-33).
Early farming in South America
Preserved organic remains from arid caves in the Andes
provide evidence that plants were cultivated in South
America by around 6500 BC (map 4). Along with local vari-
eties like potatoes, these included plants (such as beans and
chillies) native to the jungle lowlands to the east. It is there-
fore likely that South American agriculture began in the
Amazon Basin, although humid conditions in this area
precluded the preservation of ancient plant remains. Pottery
and other equipment used to process manioc (cassava) offer
indirect evidence that this important American staple food
was grown in South America by 2000 BC.
By this time village communities were established
throughout the Andean region and had developed strategies
to exploit a variety of local resources. The coast provided
exceptionally rich fisheries, while inland crops were culti-
vated using irrigation, with cotton particularly important.
The lower slopes of the Andes were also cultivated, with
crops such as potatoes at higher altitudes, while the llamas
and alpacas of the high pastures provided meat and wool.
Apart from residential villages, often furnished with
substantial cemeteries, early South Americans also built
religious centres with monumental structures. By 1200 BC
the Ghavin cult, centred on the great religious monuments
of Ghavin de Huantar and marked by characteristic art,
architecture and iconography, had united peoples along
much of the Peruvian coast (pages 34-35).
-4 The initial inhabitants of North America
were big-game hunters, but after 8000 bc
many regional groups began to develop
their own individual ways of life based on
locally available resources. Later, many
groups also participated in regional trade
networks, obtaining valued commodities
such as turquoise and obsidian in the
southwest. The rich diversity of North
American life is reflected in the surviving art
and artefacts: exquisite ivory figurines
of animals from the Arctic; vivacious rock
paintings from many areas showing
hunting, dancing and musicians; beautifully
made decoy ducks of reeds and feathers
from the Great Basin; and carvings in mica,
copper and soapstone from the Hopewell
mounds of the east.
T From about 6500 bc agriculture in South
America included not only the cultivation of
plants native to the local area but also crops
from other regions. Maize was probably
introduced from Mesoamerica: it appeared
in Ecuadorian farming villages and in the
Andean highlands around 5000 bc, then
spread from 800 into the Amazon Basin,
where it supported rapid population growth.
Caribbean Sea
Puerto Hormiga
Pimm-
U /Mm «
•+
.-■i
i
A tin it tic
Ocetnt
to *lE*<^R j 3
Valdiv *C. f
Huoco PriSta f X • W JtlitMB
CupiiniquS^ ^"-rj\ J
Jl
r% °
™«*^ Ml #Ti I
4 Farming in South America
FROM 6500 BC
Pacific ^^—y
Qoettn j
• Fcdy Bgixu+tLBTjl site
— Pik"
'f
- Olhef Mir ssttlanera
■ (rnwnsfe
Af80 of Chnvin iirflwncB
© CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA 1200 bc-ad 700 pages 32-33 © CIVILIZATIONS IN SOUTH AMERICA 1400 bc-ad 1000 pages 34-35
FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: AUSTRALIA
AND THE PACIFIC 10.000 bc-ad 1000
A Among the clones which the early
Maori settlers of flew Zealand became
skilled in curving was jade, from which
'his pendant is made.
V The rapid spread af the Asian peoples
who colonized the Pocilic islands oflei above
1 590 it b something of on enigma. Their
--D- -. niici-i ronnal have been solely an
expanding population's need lo find new
letr iincii!\ to settle, since only small
founding populations remained - well
below ihe numbers ihal Ihe islands could
have supported They tanied wfth them all
ihe plonk and animals Ihey required in
order to eslabKsh hnrtirullucal communities,
bul marine resources also ployed on
important role in their economies.
he Pacific was one of l ho last regions on Earth to ho
colo iii seed hy people. Modem humans spread into
Southeast Asia and from there crossed the sea to New
Guillen and Australia (which formed a single landmass at
that time) by about 60,(1(1(1 lie:. A few cjf the islands adjacent
to New Guinea were also settled before .10,1)00 lit:, but
expansion into the rest of the Pacific only began around
1500 Bt"; and was not completed until At) 1000 (iriuu 1 ),
Thk first colonization hi Australia
The early inhabitants of Australia were confined initially to
the coast and inland river valleys, spreading to colonize the
south by 40,(100 uc (map 2). They gathered a variety of wild
resources and hunted the local fauna, which at that time
included a number of large species such as a giant kanga-
roo, Procoplixtftn. Between 25.000 and 15.000 these huge
creatures became extinct: humans may have been partly to
blame, although increasing aridity was probably also respon-
sible. Hy 23,000 BC ground-stone tools were being made -
the earliest known in the world -and by 13,000 1st: people
had learnt to process the toxic hut highly nutritious eycad
nuts to remove their poison. The harsh desert interim of
Australia was colonized by groups who adapted their
lifestyle to cope with this challenging environment.
By 31X1(1 lie: further major changes had taken place. New
tools were now in use, including the boomerang (invented
by 8000 tie:) and small, fine stone tools suited to a variety of
tasks, of which wood-working was of prime importance.
The dingo, a semi- wild dog, had been introduced into
Australia, perhaps brought in by a new wave of immigrants
from Southeast Asia. Dingoes outcompeted the native
predators such as the thylaeine (Tasmanian tiger), a oar-
nivorous marsupial which became extinct.
Although they never adopted farming Australia's aborig-
ines exercised considerable control over the wild resources
at their disposal, clearing the bush by Presetting in order to
encourage new growth and attract or drive game, and
replanting certain preferred plant species. New Guineas first
inhabitants were also hunters and gatherers, but hy 7<K>()
lit: some communities here had begun cultivating local
plants like sugar cane, yam, taro and banana, and keeping
pigs (map 1 ). At Kuk, in the highlands, there is evidence at
this early date for a network of drainage channels to allow
crops to he grown in swampland,
Migration after 1504 uc
Farming communities were also developing in East and
Southeast Asia; around 1500 Bt: a new wave of colonists
began to spread out from this area, moving from the main-
land into Taiwan and the Philippines, then into the islands
of Southeast Asia and from here into the Pacifio. By
KXH) uc: they had reached the Marianas in tile north and.
much further afield, Tonga and Samoa in Polynesia to the
east. The movement of these people can be traced from the
distribution of their distinctive pottery, known as Laprta
ware, a red-slipped ware decorated with elaborate stamped
designs. They also used obsidian (volcanic glass) and shell
for making tools, and brought with them a range of South-
east Asian domestic animals, including dogs and chickens.
By this time the colonists had become skilled navigators,
sailing in double canoes or outriggers large enough to
accommodate livestock as well as people, and capable of
tacking into the wind. The uniformity of their artefacts
shows that contacts were maintained throughout the area,
with return as well as outward journeys. The Polynesians
used the stars, ocean currents, winds and other natural phe-
nomena as navigational guides, and they made ocean charts
uf palm sticks with the islands marked hy cowrie shells.
V The inhabitants ol the eastern Polynesian
islands erected stone platforms and courts
with slone morwlilhs. These were shrines
(moral which were used lor prayer and lor
human and animal sacrifice la the oods as
were the unique sfone monuments - huge
stone platforms (ahu) and colossal stone
heads (rnooi) - ol Easter Island. Ho foster
Island slnttres wete erected alter to 1 600
and by 1 863 all existing ones had been
ddiberateJy toppled (lo be re-erected From
ihe 1 950s|, n development thai reflects
sociol upheoral rekrled to delorestoiion ond
consequent pressure on resources.
J <LAI.u tfl Pita Kwrn
_ Aim Tongotil,
.00090 . 1 t
i .1 -
9°
3 Easteb Inland
♦ Quarry
• Abu platfwmAiuiLH!
/ I B
1 COLOMIUilONDFTHlPKIFK
liii iVjrt (offline
A Rilral strmrun after u M
KeysKrtlmifflit
UBDUsfBieiBe Pwfr
-*- brUMMiC
Z+ 1600-11 it
by 30,000 Bt
— «*■ nil -400
^ 1500-1 dook
— *• ICSOO-IOOO
ATLAS 01 WOILD HISTORY MtT 1
-4 The complex Mtmi and cultural life
ol Airslrolio's Aboriginal inhabitants is
reHecled in pointed and Engraved on
(which appeared almost as early us the firs!
settlement of Australia), in burials with an
array al grave goods, in o variety of ritual
sites, and in the Aborigines' rirh oral
traditions. Units between lommunilies
based on kinship were enhanced by long
distance trade: commodrtitt such as coastal
shells were taken into the interior while
raugried-arrt stone axes fram quarries in the
interior mos-ad in the opposite direction.
T The culture ol the early Maori settlers in
New Zealand differed from that of other
Polynesians in the emphasis it placed on
long-distance trade. Among the hems Traded
were various types of stone used far making
tools and weapons, including greenstone for
waicluhs ond amulets, and materials such os
obsidian (volcanic glass I, argil lite (white
clay tent} ond shells
The colonization of eastern Polynesia
This wave of colonization uame to :t standstill a round
1000 t«: in western Polynesia. Groups from the colonized
regions spread north and east to complete the settlement of
Micronesia from that time, hut it was not until about 2<KI uc
that a new surge of eastward colonization took place, estab-
lishing populations on the more scattered islands ol' eastern
Polynesia, including the .Society Islands, Tahiti and the
Marquesas, These people evolved a distinctive culture which
differed from that developed by groups in the areas already
settled - areas that were still open to influence from
Southeast Asia, liy now the Polynesians had almost entirely
abandoned pottery: eastern Polynesians began making dis-
tinctive new types of stone adze, shell fish-hooks mid
jewellery. They also built stone religious monuments.
The best known and most striking of these were the
(vaster Island statues, Easter Island and I lawaii were settled
in a further colonizing movement by around All 41)1) Nearly
2. 1)1)0 kilometres (1,251) miles) from Piteairn. its nearest
neighbour, Easter Island was probably never revisited after
its initial settlement. The resulting isolation allowed its
people to develop a unique form of general Polynesian
culture, notable for its mysterious stone heads (mop .1).
INka Zealand's first settlers
Between AH 800 and 1000 a final wave of Polynesian voy-
agers colonized New Zealand (map 4) and the Chatham
Islands to the east. Here new challenges and oppor-
tunities awaited them.
New Zealand is unique in the Pacific in enjoying
a temperate climate; most of the tropical plants Cul-
tivated by Polynesians elsewhere in the Pacific could
not grow here, although sweet potatoes ( introduced
into Polynesia from South America) flourished. In
compensation there were rich marine resources and a
wide range ol' edible plants indigenous to the islands -
ol' which one. the mot of the bracket fern, became an
important cultivated plant on North Island.
There was also a large population of huge flight-
less birds (moa), which had evolved in great diversity
due tfi the absence of mammals and predators.
Reverting to their distantly ancestral hunter-gatherer
way of life, the new settlers (early Maori I bunted
these birds to extinction within 5IX) years, aided
by the dogs and rats they had introduced. The
native flora also became depleted. As South
Island was unsuited to agriculture its pop-
ulation declined, and on North Island
increased reliance on horticulture
went hand in hand with growing ^
warfare between the commit- Ll
nitics, accompanied by
the building of fortified
settlements, trophy
head-hunting and
cannibalism.
^ Mount Camel
'
B fe Bey o* Ufcndi
OtaieanintW
ni
m
& Mflrajry Bey
fl Kciiri Point
SB
; V Norrfi Island
9
4 New Zealand
» MMMiHlnMti
■ Source of traced items
♦ Early site witti moo bwies
~ Ste! midden
© II IE DKYKI.C (PMENT < II- At ISTKALIA AMI NEW ZF.A1.ANH SINCE 1 7'XI jxitjes 202-J
THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS: MESOPOTAMIA
AND THE INDUS REGION 4000-1800 bc
Zogros
Mountains
1 Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic
Period c. 2900 at
laoati (orctfira
CoiKse af ™r in 3id inrtlemwm K
Wol
WlalUbai
Eridu 1
r/iL i.i'"'
▲ Hie unstable physical environment of
Mesopotamia caused many radical changes
in the pattern of settlement. Sediments from
the Tigris and Euphrates filled in the head of
the Gulf, isolating ancient ports. Moreover,
the courses of the rivers also changed,
taking precious river water away from
settlements. Since rainfall was inadequate
to sustain crops, these settlements were
usually soon abandoned.
T Early Mesopotamian cities varied in size
and importance, from 1 0-hectare (25-acre)
Abu Salabikh to Warka (Uruk), which
covered over 400 hectares (1,000 acres)
and had a population of 40-50,000 people.
Warka's 9-kilometre (6-mile) city wall
enclosed temples, palaces and houses,
sometimes grouped into specialized craft
quarters, as well as open spaces for
gardens, burials and waste disposal.
Indus cities, by contrast, generally
comprised a large planned residential area
and a raised citadel with public buildings
and, probably, accommodation for the
rulers. In the largest, Mohenjo-daro, the
lower town contained both spacious private
houses and industrial areas hosting the full
range of Indus crafts.
Agricultural communities had emerged in many parts
of the world by the 4th millennium bc. In some areas
high productivity supported high population densities
and the emergence of cities, necessitating more complex
social organization and giving rise to more elaborate public
architecture. These developments encouraged trade in
essential and luxury goods as well as craft and other occu-
pational specialization. Such "civilized" communities
appeared first in Mesopotamia, around 4000 bc.
Mesopotamia
By 4500 bc the advent of irrigation agriculture had enabled
the settlement of the dry southern Mesopotamian alluvium
(map 1). A social world comprising groups of agriculturalist
kinsfolk living in hamlets, villages or towns evolved, to be
transformed around 600 years later into one of specialists
living in complex and hierarchical social arrangements in
an urban milieu. Religion played an important part in this
process: while religious structures are recognizable in the
earlier archaeological record, palaces and other large secular
buildings appear only later in the 4th millennium. Religious
complexes became larger and increasingly elaborate
throughout the period.
A number of urban centres emerged, of which one in
particular stands out - ancient Warka (map 2A), also called
Uruk. The city had at least two very large religious precincts
- Eanna and Kullaba. In the Eanna Precinct the earliest
written records, dating from around 3100 bc, have been
found: tablets of clay or gypsum inscribed with ideographic
characters. These first texts were economic in nature, com-
prising lists and amounts of goods and payments.
By 2900 BC there were also other important urban
centres in southern Mesopotamia - city-states ruled by
individual kings who negotiated shifting economic and
political alliances among themselves and with polities
outside Mesopotamia. The wealth and power of the Early
Dynastic rulers can be seen in the elaborate burials in the
Royal Cemetery of Ur, some including human sacrifices as
well as objects of gold, silver and lapis lazuli.
SUMER AND AKKAD
From the fragmented historical record of this period it is
apparent that the region was becoming divided between the
lands of Akkad (from Abu Salabikh to the edge of the north-
ern Mesopotamian plains) and of Sumer (from Nippur south
to Eridu). Sumer and Akkad were not political entities but
regions whose people spoke two different languages while
sharing a common material culture. Around 2350 BC
Sargon I, a charismatic and powerful Akkadian ruler, subju-
gated all Sumer and Akkad, also conquering lands to the
northwest as far as Turkey and the Mediterranean, and to
the east as far as Susa. His was perhaps the first empire to
outlast the life of its founder, but by 2200 bc it had collapsed
and was followed by a period of Sumerian revival.
At the close of the 3rd millennium BC Ur, long an impor-
tant Sumerian city, came to dominate the region. The Third
Dynasty of Ur ruled the cities of Sumer and Akkad and east
beyond the Zagros Mountains, establishing a system of gov-
ernors and tax collectors that formed the skeleton for the
complex bureaucracy needed to control a large population.
However, this last Sumerian flowering had lasted only 120
years when Ur was sacked in 2004 bc by the Elamites.
International trade
The literate Sumerians provide an invaluable source of
information on contemporary cultures, from whom they
obtained essential raw materials such as metals, wood and
minerals, and luxuries including lapis lazuli. The most
distant of their direct trading partners was the Indus region,
known to them as Meluhha, the source of ivory, carnelian
beads and gold; closer lay Magan, a major source of copper,
and Dilmun (Bahrain), long known to the Sumerians as the
source of "sweet water" and "fish-eyes" (pearls) (map 3).
Dilmun acted as an entrepot in this trade, but there were
also Meluhhan merchants resident in some Sumerian cities.
Sumer exported textiles, oil and barley to its trading part-
ners, but the Indus people were probably most interested in
receiving silver obtained by Sumer from further west. It is
likely that Magan was an intermediary for trade along the
Arabian coast with Africa, the source of several types of
millet introduced into India at this time. The Indus people
also had writing, but the surviving texts - brief inscriptions
on seals and copper tablets - have yet to be deciphered, and
probably contain little beyond names and titles.
2 Uriah development
AThecityofWajika
__| ivdnoffi
Or mil
Snucmres:
Mi»*nur.
3d md mh 1
Mi
XOra
B The city of Mohenjo-Duo
| (-rttieiYe erf r«iuilt«l txtrvrti 1
| iKcarated aksm,
| Ptibk bufclingi
Great Ml
— — Wpfe
\
Moi» streets
J
r-r-
20Oytb
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 1
—
HI
3 International trade in the
4th and 3rd millennia bc
Ancient toastlir*
■ Find of inscibed material outside
frkiSffH
Ifotfed (ommoriries
a ft
□ coppef
O gold
* ksrf/sil*
♦ stEutiiia/diloiife
A laps Mi
pearls
from mdvi region:
nofon textiles?, timber, '
peacock, lapii :>--.i
{imparled from Shortugai},
cornelian and gala
I
odeioute:
4th did eflity 3nj rratteflnm K
— later 3rd milienniurn
A In the 4th and early 3rd millennia BC
Summons traded with towns across the
Iranian Plateau. By the later 3rd millennium
DC, however, they were trading directly with
the Indus region by sea, and trade in lapis
lazuli had become an Indus monopoly.
► Indus settlements in what is now desert
point to a time when a network of rivers
(lowed parallel to the Indus, augmenting
the area available for agriculture. The area
at the mouth of these rivers was important
in both local and international trade.
The Indus region
In the Indus region, colonized by farmers in the later 4th
millennium BC, many settlements were replaced by planned
towns and cities around 2600 BC (map 4). Within their
overall similarity of plan there was considerable local varia-
tion, particularly in the layout of the citadel, probably
reflecting heterogeneity in religious and cultural practices.
For example, the citadel at Mohenjo-daro was dominated by
a Great Bath, suggesting ritual bathing, important in later
Indian religion (map 2B). In contrast, those of Kalibangan
and Lothal had pits where sacrificial material was burnt.
Despite some regional variation, uniformity was a
keynote of the Indus civilization. Throughout the Indus
realms high-quality goods such as pottery, flint blades and
copper objects, shell and stone beads and bangles, and
steatite seals were manufactured from the best materials
available, such as flint from the Rohri Hills. Although the
Indus people owed much of their prosperity to the rich
agricultural potential of their river valleys, a significant
proportion of the population were mobile pastoralists, their
flocks and herds grazing in the adjacent forests and grassy
uplands; it is probable they acted as carriers in the internal
trade networks that ensured the distribution of goods.
Outside the heartland of the civilization, mobile hunter-
gatherers provided the means by which the Indus people
obtained goods and materials (such as ivory, carnelian and
gold) from other regions of the subcontinent, in exchange
for cultivated grain, domestic animals and manufactured
goods such as copper fish-hooks. The fishers of the Arawalli
Hills also participated in this network, trading their locally
mined copper.
Around 1800 BC the Indus civilization went into decline.
A probable cause was the drying up of some of the rivers,
but other factors may have included disease, changes in
agricultural practices, and perhaps the depredations of Indo-
Aryan nomads on the Indus periphery.
* a 2
'/n'llk!'" 1
v ■$. !' -'
Aye
#
L'VX— Ropo,
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♦ •• w
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Desert
Arabian 8&i
4 Tki Indus civilization
Ancient (Mslfina
It. I:i . . ::- r r JL lies
Ancient cause af river
A flint
A fhrxdmv
♦ stwhte
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© HUNTING TO FARMING: ASIA 12,000 bc-ad 500 pages 18-19 O THE MEDITERRANEAN 2000-1000 bc pages 36-37 O INDIA 600 bc-ad 500 pages 46-47
THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS:
EGYPT 3500-2180 bc AND CHINA 1700-1050 bc
▲ Ancient Egypt became the world's first
large, centrally ruled state. It was headed by
a divine king (pharaoh) who was known as
the son of Ra, the sun god. According to
some experts, pyramids represented the
staircase along which the pharaoh would
return to the heavens after his death. The
most famous pyramids are those at Giza,
angled at a perfect 52°. Close by is Khafre's
Sphinx, 73 metres (240 feet) in length and
carved from a limestone outcrop. Originally
it was plastered and brightly painted, the
bearded face wearing a spectacular
headdress sporting a cobra motif.
► "Gift of the Nile" was the name given
by the Greek historian Herodotus
(c. 485-425 bc) to the country where
Ancient Egyptian civilization flourished
without rival for over 2,000 years. While
the Nile Valley provided fertile soils, the
surrounding deserts yielded the precious
metals and building stone used in ambitious
artistic and architectural endeavours such as
the pyramids. These won such acclaim in
Ancient Greece that they became known as
one of the "Seven Wonders of the World".
The first civilizations emerged in areas where high
agricultural productivity was possible, supporting
dense populations. In the Old World they appeared
along the rivers in Mesopotamia, northern India, Egypt and
northern China. Craft specialization developed, trade flour-
ished, writing began and rulers were often given elaborate
burials. However, each civilization also had unique features
rooted in its own cultural background and environment.
Life in Ancient Egypt evolved around the Nile, which pro-
vided a regular water supply and fertile soils and thus, by
contrast with the surrounding desert regions, made agricul-
tural production possible. Navigation on the river was easy, as
boats could travel northwards with the current or sail south-
wards on the northerly winds. From the 5th millennium bc
farming communities along the Nile gradually began to merge
into a cultural, political and economic unit. This process of
unification was encouraged by trading contacts and the need
to control the floodwaters of the Nile. To reap the benefits of
the yearly inundation of the river, communities had to work
together to build dams, flood basins and irrigation channels
over large areas. In around 3000 BC this co-operation resulted
»
1 Old Kingdom Egypt
2686-2181
BC
1 '"" ll '"
*
portiyiy
qmsltiyir
O goU
[1
emeroU
□ copper
♦
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in the establishment of a single kingdom and the First
Dynasty: according to tradition, in 3100 bc King Menes
united the delta region (Lower Egypt) and the river valley
(Upper Egypt) and founded a capital at Memphis.
The Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods
The period of the first Egyptian dynasties was one of great
cultural and economic significance, when hieroglyphic script
was developed and administrative centres established.
During the succeeding period of the Old Kingdom (2686-
2181 bc), Egyptian culture flourished and the great pyramids
were built as spectacular royal tombs (map 1). The first was
the step pyramid constructed for Pharaoh (or King) Djoser
(2667-2648 bc) at Saqqara: over 60 metres (200 feet) high,
it was the largest stone building of its time. The first true
pyramids, with sloping sides, were constructed at Giza, and
the largest, built for Pharaoh Khufu (2589-2566 bc), reached
a height of nearly 150 metres (500 feet). Eventually the rule
of the Old Kingdom dynasties collapsed, possibly because of
the expanding power of the provincial governors, or perhaps
because scarce rainfall led to famine and unrest. Central
government would be restored with new dynasties during the
Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 bc) and the New Kingdom
(1550-1069 bc) periods (pages 36-37).
The growth of Egyptian trade
In search of building materials, gold and luxury items, the
pharaohs established a wide trade network. During the Old
Kingdom period links were forged with many areas of West
Asia, including Byblos on the Lebanese coast, predomi-
nantly in a search for timber, and expeditions were sent to
mine turquoise, copper and malachite in the Sinai Desert.
The Eastern Desert yielded copper and stone and gave
access to the harbours on the Red Sea, from where trade
with East Africa and Arabia was conducted. While these
trading missions were mainly peaceful, the area to the south
of the First Cataract along the Nile became a prime target
for expansion. This land, called Nubia or Kush, offered large
quantities of gold as well as connections with the African
hinterland, which was an important source of spices, ebony,
ivory and other luxury goods. During the Old Kingdom
period, a mining settlement was established at Buhen - the
first step in a process of southward expansion which would
peak in the 15th century bc.
Arts and crafts flourished in Ancient Egypt, particularly
in the service of religion and in providing for the dead.
Religion also played a major role in northern China, where
ancestors were given the greatest respect and were consulted
by divination using oracle bones prior to important events
such as hunting trips, childbirth and military campaigns.
The rise of the Shang civilization
Around 1700 bc the Shang civilization emerged as a
powerful new state in the northern plains of China. It is
known from later historical sources, from magnificent
archaeological remains of cities and great tombs, and from
written inscriptions carved on oracle bones and cast on
splendid ritual bronze vessels. Bronze-working was
important to Shang culture and to many other peoples in
China, and several different traditions can be recognized
(map 2). However, it is the use of writing that sets the Shang
civilization apart: although ideographic pictograms were
used as potters' marks as early as the 3rd millennium BC,
the Shang inscriptions provide the first evidence of the
development of a literate civilization in China.
During the latter half of the 2nd millennium bc the Shang
dynasty conquered and controlled large parts of northern
China (map 3). The first Shang king, Tang, achieved domi-
nance by defeating 1 1 other peoples and then winning over
36 more by his fair rule and moral leadership.
Shang rule reached its greatest extent under Wu Ding,
one of Tang's successors, who was renowned for his wisdom
and led a series of successful military campaigns. Wu Ding
was supported in his campaigns by his consort Fu Hao, who
herself led armies into battle against the hostile Fang people.
HltS 01 WOULD HISTORY. PUT 1
The secret of Shang military success was the vise of war
chariots, which were so prized that they were sometimes
included in burials. Fu Hao's sumptuous tomb is the richest
known Shang burial, containing over 400 bronze treasures,
2,000 cowrie shells and more than 51X1 jade artefacts. Most of
the other great tombs, however, were looted in antiquity.
Royal Ciiiinkke onus
Walled towns or cities ruled by royal lineages were central
to early Chinese states, but they were often "moved": eight
such transfers are recorded for the .Shang capital before the
reign of the first king (the beginning of the "dynastic period")
and a further seven for the .10 kings of the dynastic period.
We know most about the last capital, Yin (near modern
Anyang), which was founded by Pan Cieng in about 1400 Hi;.
Yin was located on the marshy plains of the I luting He
River, at that time a warmer and moister environment than
now exists. The coast was considerably closer and the region
was fertile, supporting two crops a year of rice and millet.
Water buffalo and wild boar roamed the luxuriant forests
which have long since disappeared. Yin sprawled over a large
area in which residential compounds for the ruling elite and
clusters of commoners' dwellings were interspersed with
bronze foundries and workshops producing jade and lacquer
ware and pottery. At its centre lay the royal palaces and
ancestor temples set atop platforms of pounded earth, and a
royal cemetery where kings lay in magnificent shaft graves.
We know little about the later Shang rulers, except for
the debaucheries of the last king, the tyrannical Chun. Such
were ('hem's excesses and tortures that the Shang people
welcomed his defeat at the hands of the Zhou ill the Battle of
(Ihaoge. traditionally dated 1 122 IV. but probably closer to
1050 BG. The Zhou were to become China's longest-ruling
dynasty, governing the region until 256 BC (pages 48-^49),
3 Shang China c. 1700
-1050 it
wjult toostn
Eaty Shana site
• HorM/durar burnl
»
lore Shang sirs
d Shflng n?ihj1
Mi Ding's cnmpnicjrr igaimr iho
WU Shang ydshjI slots
GulondWti 1324-12(4 K
Wet Hmrili people
2 Bronze -working in China
hta of Shong brumes ♦ Tm ore source
San Orts brmre tiejttam □ (dock ore scuci
: T
No "Wn bron* ei
□
1 ^'° ' ' " \
< The immediate pietteressocs of the
Shang begun working in bronic - n ugfl
reaching grail heights under both the Shong
nnd their neighbours. Casl bronie vessels,
used la serve bod and drink hi ceremonies
honouring ancestors, followed the imditaiat
shapes previously mode in pottery/, orten
inuitoieiy detoroled nnd featuring the fate
of o monster known ns laolie. Hie discovery
of many line broraes al Saniiaodui in
Sechuan proves the existence ol ecceilenl
bfonie urtiiking traditions ouiside the Shong
area. Worhing in hronie probably began
earlier in Southeast Asia mid soulb (hina.
-4 Hie Shang stale was the mosi important
of China's earfy states - and ihe only one
lhat was literate. From the oracle bones the
Shang employed lo foretell ihe outcome ol
military campaigns, we know Ihe names ol
marry fang (alien stales) with wham they
were in conftitl at various times. Defeated
enemies were often soirificed ta gods or
ancestors. Shang kings maintained o small
personal bodyguard but could raise armies
ol up to 5.000 men from their provinces in
wartime. These were mo inly fool soldiers
armed with halberds, supporting an elile
lorce of drariotry.
T Many bronze vessels produced in Sbrmg
China were decorated with ammo! motifs.
The lid ol this gong {lidded jor) is in the
form of an imaginary animal combining
lealures ol bink and tigers. Gongs were
used during the lime ol Fu Noo around
1 200 it. but were soon replaced by
animal shaped jars.
O T1IK MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULF UE( HON 2000-1000 w. fx«!« .lf>-.tr O FIRST EMPIRES IN CHINA 1 100 isosn 220 pages J.S_/'J
CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA
1200 BC-AD 700
I'
"^fr,^.^—^ Auto Mountain
TitS. ZflpOfei
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as
1 The Owe c. 1200-
-300
1
^ Oirrrat heaitand
•
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pH so otw gnen skme
O OlmK-fiftjwced sirg
□
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YUCATAN
PENINSULA
A 1 1 a n t i
d O c e a n
A The Olmet me best known For the
massive carved heads and other distinctive
>toi le sadptures found in trier three
sutcessiw tetemrjnirjl centres el Son lorenio
(l!00-»0Oer.),Loventa (900-600(0
and Ires Zaootes (600-300 !(] and ot
other Mesoomerican sites.
T tartrhuocan influenced and proaahly
d much of the extensive area with
h it traded, including the Maya city of
It is undeor to whot extent
this dominance wos achieved and
main toined by military force: although
Tentihuaton art rarely shows its people as
warriors, thh is how they appear in the art
ol their powerful neighbours, the Mayo ond
Monte Alton.
By 12(10 bc much of Mesoamerica
was inhabited by agricultural com-
munities, which were linked through
trade in both essential everyday commodities and
exotic materials. The most prosperous area at this time
was the Gulf Coast, where annual river flooding supported
rich agriculture, and it was in this region that the Olmec
culture emerged (mop I ).
While some scholars believe that the Olmec dominated
Mesoamerica, controlling the settlements in which their dis-
tinctive artefacts have been found, others see the Olmec as
the religious leaders of the time, with their successive cere-
monial centres acting as places of pilgrimage. Another school
of thought views the Olmec as the most visible and most
easily identified of a number of contemporary regional cul-
tures that were mutually influential.
Much that is characteristic of later Mesoamerican
civilization is already evident in the Olmec culture. The dan-
gerous animals I in particular the jaguar) and the natural
~T
^LT-| LASMESA5
Montr. Albotr # Da*™
Pacific Oeeo n
2 Classic highland oviuzahoms c. ad 1 -
-700
__] MmnNi Albon Irniyre ond iirao rf-ojllural inftiBiice
feuded cwmwiliiH:
| feotihirxai Emp« aid mm
gfakml Aen
C atarion
o
to
• Maiai i/bdMentri
^ tutttogsiww
4
fBOttlfiri
O OHkj utter, am
□ in:n -are ior mirrors
i
poUBy
— (ortmpmiYakn
1 pde and alte preeii
times A
n*
□ Iraebed ■-.le.jt
* ilinr
-Atwil lakaH
phenomena (such as rain) which
feature prominently in Olmec art reap-
pear in various guises in later religious art.
The concern with the movements of sun, moon
and stars that underlies much Mesoamerican religion
is apparent in the astronomically aligned layout of the
Olmec ceremonial centres, where the first temple pyramids
and plazas, as well as caches of precious offerings to the gods,
have been found. The characteristic colossal carved heads,
which may be portraits of Olmec rulers, wear helmets for the
ritual ballgame, a dangerous sport with religious significance
that was part of most Mesoamerican cultures and often
involved the sacrifice of members of the losing team.
Personal blood sacrifice, practised in later Mesoamerican
religions, also appears to base been a feature of Olmec life, as
stingray spines and other objects used to draw blood have
been found at Olmec sites. These items were widely traded -
as were both jade, which had great ritual importance, and
obsidian [volcanic rock glass), used to make exceptionally
sharp tools but also fine ritual or status objects. The wide-
spread distribution of these materials reflects not only their
religious significance throughout Mesoamerica but also their
role as indicators of status in communities where social hier-
archies were beginning to emerge. Prestigious Olmec potter)'
and figurines (including the characteristic "were-jaguar"
babies) served the same purpose.
Tut Teotieilacan and Monte Ai.kan Kmi-iri -
By about 300 Be the Olmec had lost their pre-eminent
position and other civilizations were developing in the high-
land zone, particularly the Teotihuacan Empire in the Basin
of Mexico and the Monte Alban Empire of the Zapotoe people
in the Oaxaea Valley [map 2). This was the beginning of
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 1
what is known as the Classic Period, which lasted until
around AD 900. Agricultural productivity now greatly
increased in this region as irrigation techniques using wells
and canals were developed to supplement rain-fed farming.
Raised fields may also have been cultivated.
Like the Olmec, all these civilizations were heavily
involved in trade. The city of Teotihuacan (map 3A),
founded before 300 bc, was well placed to control wide-
spread trading networks. It contained over 600 workshops
manufacturing goods for local use and for export - objects
of obsidian (400 workshops), basalt (a building stone), shell
and other materials, as well as distinctive pottery.
The city of Monte Alban was founded around 500 BC.
Like Teotihuacan, it was the ceremonial and political centre
of its state, but in contrast it was not the centre for regional
craft production. Evidence shows that initially the Monte
Alban state grew by military conquest, but by ad 300 its
expansion had been checked by that of the Teotihuacan
Empire, although the people of Monte Alban seem to have
been on friendly terms with their neighbour.
Ballcourts and depictions of sacrificial victims at Monte
Alban show the continuation in the highland zone of the
religious practices of Olmec times. Also continued was the
use of written symbols (glyphs) to record dates and related
information. Concern with the movements of heavenly
bodies and the related calendar had led to the development
of glyphs by the Olmec; by 500 bc the people of the Oaxaca
Valley were recording dates and names on their carved stone
slabs (stelae). However, the only region where a complete
writing system developed in the Classic Period was the Maya
lowlands (map 4).
The Early Maya civilization
The Maya writing system was extremely complex, with
many variations in the form of individual glyphs and in the
way in which a word could be expressed. It was also used to
record an extremely elaborate calendric system, involving
interlocking and independent cycles of time, including the
52-year repeating cycle used throughout Mesoamerica and
the Maya Long Count, a cycle beginning in 3114 BC accord-
ing to our present-day dating system. These depended both
on a detailed knowledge of astronomical patterns and on
sophisticated mathematics, including the concept of zero.
Although the Maya script is still not fully deciphered,
scholars are now able to read many inscriptions on carved
stelae, temple stairs and lintels and have pieced together the
dynastic history of many of the Maya kingdoms. (Unlike the
two highland empires, the Maya were not politically unified,
although they were united culturally.) Maya inscriptions
record the descent of each ruler from a founding ancestor,
his performance of appropriate ritual activities on dates of
significance in the astronomical religious calendar, and his
victories over neighbouring rulers. Although wars of con-
quest did occur at this time - Uaxactun's takeover by Tikal
(map 3B) in AD 378 is the prime example - the main motive
for warfare was to capture high-ranking individuals to be
used as sacrificial victims.
Blood sacrifice was of central importance in Maya and
other Mesoamerican religions, based on the belief that
human blood both nourished divine beings and opened a
pathway through which humans could communicate with
the spirit world. While personal sacrifices could be made by
any member of Maya society, it was largely the responsibility
of each king to ensure the well-being of his state through the
provision of sacrificial victims and by letting his own blood.
Members of the king's family were appointed as provincial
governors of lesser centres within the kingdom, and they also
acted in other official capacities including that of scribe.
The 7th century saw the demise of Teotihuacan and
Monte Alban and the rise of other highland states, while in
the Maya region important changes had already occurred
(pages 84-85). The pattern of existence that had emerged
in Olmec times continued, however, as the template for the
Mesoamerican way of life up to the time of the European
conquest in the 16th century.
3 Patterns of urbanization
H Momnreflrd/rewwrtfli ww
ffiw/rranmii
■ IfesidanholArafT tompotnd
H
SWDflE
• '• ■- J -u* . :
, :?'
. , •! , '•■•i ■
» r .u . . m *» «
o«
.. ■-■•
* r
A The cities of Teotihuacan and Tib!
highlight the contrasting patterns of life
in the highland and lowland civilizations.
Tikal, in the Maya lowlands, covered more
than 1 20 square kilometres (47 square
miles) with an estimated population of
50,000, while Teotihuacan in the highlands
housed two to four times as many people
in a sixth of the area. House compounds in
Mayo cities were interspersed with doorstep
gardens and raised fields in swamp areas,
and a great variety of crops were grown in
both. By contrast the agricultural lands
supporting Teotihuacan lay outside the
city, in the Basin of Mexico. Highland and
lowland cities alike, however, focused on a
ceremonial centre containing temples and
the residences and burial places of the elite.
4 Early Classic Maya c. ad 200-550
9 Urban r.enlra
.:, shells
_J Ukide lefrdtinrj
\ slrir/DV spines
Z\ (teed field
I feathers
| Swamp
■ sdi
traded fommrffes:
%* man
l iMIan
— *- Tnxteiwfhj
4 Ftni
' traripiion giving
jndn mil Dllwi giecr acme
dynastic history
Gulf of Mexico
A Recent discoveries have shown that the
Maya employed intensive farming
techniques, including hillside terracing to
counteract erosion, and canals dug along
rivers and in bajos (seasonal swamps) for
drainage, water storage and probably fish-
farming and communications. Highly
productive raised fields were constructed
between grids of canals - although the
known extent of these fields is likely to
represent only a fraction of what once
existed. As in other Mesoamerican
civilizations, trade played an important role
in Maya life, providing materials for daily
living, religious rituals and status symbols.
© FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: THE AMERICAS 12,000-1000 bc pages 24-25 © CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA 500-1500 pages 84-85 33
CULTURES IN SOUTH AMERICA
1400 BC-AD 1000
1 Pm-Chavin Mi Chavin
1400-200 bc
Symbah in ■ pre- and -onrlv Cbnvin
UM-8MK
^Titnk in ■ : Inter Chfivin perxHj
BSO-fflO «[
■ ■ CeremwirJ twTffl
A A Bund/W-ererv
• • Olhor rsfcjimi ale
^J Chowi ifteii of nftunn
O Srte shewing Oovin flftuerx s
EJ Fortress
Traded rornmodiNm
M tome ondntaed species
O 5trornbir5 and ipondylus shells
*< rhdlnfc
O cinnnbor
8 lopii llFllll
• PMIBV
▲ Spondylus and slrombus sheik, widely
regarded as food (or the gods, featured
prominently in Chavin and later Andean
art. Imparted from the coast of Ecuador,
they were an important commodity in
the exchange networks that ensured the
distribution of foodstuffs and other raw
materials (such as obsidian, or volcanic
glass) and manufactured goods (notably
pottery and textiles) between the different
regions of the Andean zone during the
Chavin period. Chavin de Huantar probably
owed its pre-eminent position to its location
at the centre of trade routes running both
north-south ond east-west. In some areas
roads were built to facilitate trade and
communications, and these networks
(and the commodities they carried)
changed little in later periods.
By the late 2nd millennium BC a patchwork of inter-
related farming settlements existed throughout the
Andean region, from coasts and lowland valleys to
high pastures. In addition to residential villages, the Andean
people were constructing religious centres which took
various forms (map 1). Those in coastal regions were char-
acteristically built in the shape of a U, with terraced mounds
laid out along three sides of a rectangular plaza, and a
pyramid often stood on the central mound. Some of these
temple complexes - notably Gerro Sechin, where graphic
carvings of victims survive - give evidence of human sacri-
fice as a part of the rites performed. Thus they foreshadow
the practices of later Andean cultures, which included a
widespread trophy head cult (for example among the Nazca)
and warfare to obtain captives for sacrifice (particularly
evident among the Moche).
Chavin de Huantar
Around 850 bc a similar U-shaped ceremonial centre was
constructed in the mountains at Chavin de Huantar.
Housing the shrine of an oracular fanged deity set within
labyrinthine passages, Chavin de Huantar became a place
of pilgrimage, the centre of a cult that was widespread in its
influence, as demonstrated by the distribution of artefacts in
the characteristic Chavin style. Carvings decorating the
temple mounds focused on religious themes, as did designs
on pottery, jewellery and other objects. Chief among these
was the Chavin deity, which continued to be worshipped
down the ages in various forms, such as the Staff God of
Tiwanaku. Other supernatural creatures included jaguars,
caymans and composite beasts; shamans were also depicted
and they were believed to be able to transform themselves
into exotic birds and animals.
Traded objects, such as goldwork, were included as
grave goods in the elaborate burials of the Chavin elite.
These burials were often placed in shaft tombs within the
platforms of the Chavin ceremonial centres, another prac-
tice that endured down the ages - for example in the
magnificent burials found in the few unlooted Moche
huacas (sacred pyramids) such as that at Sipan.
The Paracas and Nazca cultures
The distinctive Paracas culture emerged in Chavin times,
around 600 BC. Their craftsmanship survived in an exten-
sive cemetery (map 1 ) containing numerous mummies of
elite individuals wrapped in beautifully embroidered cotton
textiles and accompanied by fine pottery, goldwork and
other offerings. By around 375 bc the Paracas culture had
developed into the Nazca culture (maps 2 and 4B), also
renowned for its textiles and fine polychrome pottery. Some
vessels were designed in the form of trophy heads, and real
heads - pierced for suspension on a rope - have been recov-
ered from Nazca cemeteries, in particular that at the chief
Nazca ceremonial centre of Cahuachi.
Unlike Chavin de Huantar and the ceremonial centres
of other Andean civilizations, Cahuachi seems not to have
functioned as a town, though it was probably a place
occupied briefly by thousands of pilgrims during religious
ceremonies and festivals. In its neighbourhood are the enig-
matic Nazca Lines, designs on a gigantic scale which were
created by removing stones to expose the light desert soil
beneath and depict animals, birds and geometric shapes
familiar from the Nazca pottery. Their form can only be
appreciated from the air, so they are thought to have been
intended for the gods to view and to have been used in the
performance of religious activities.
▼ The Moche culture was centred on the site
of Moche, in northwest Peru. Its adobe
pyramids, among the largest in the New
World, contained temples and rich tombs
later desecrated by other Andean peoples
and the Spanish. Through time, the Moche
spread to most of the northern coast of Peru,
from the Huarmey Volley in the south, and,
in the latest phase, to the Lambayeque
Valley in the north. Further south, the Nazca
culture is well represented by large
cemeteries and substantial religious
structures of mudbrick. The culture is best
known, however, for the Nazca lines.
2 Nazca and Moots
37Ssc-AD650
~]
Mod* Mime
□
Nazcrj Muence
□
Ar«o of Kazai Lib
D
(aemmioi centre
A
Burol/remetiSY
O
Other religion sire
■
fortified Set
•
Sertlerrttnt
D» Mi™
OcocdHi.-. Panpi
• I Pacheco
LoEitanquwio- r 'Hooa: cW I
Ci*«xH«D
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 1
▼ Irrigation played on imporlani role in
South American agriculture, and wotet
control wos well developed during the
Chaviri period (1200-200 i<|, when a
■sen ol canals was skilfully used In
provide awe-inspiring sound e fleets in the
great (eremoniol centre of Chavin de
Huantor. Inter civilizations in the Andean
region employed a variety of different
techniques appropriate to local conditions.
The Mnihe supplemented perennial and
seasonal watercourses by creating a
network of canals (01. To the south, in the
Nazca region, underground aqueducts
designed to prevent water loss by
evopocotion (A) were probably
constructed after id 600 when the region
leil to the Hu.ir -. who aka built
sophisticated hillside irrigation terraces,
[he Tiwunuku state undertook u large-
scale progcamme of swamp drainage and
canal construction in the Pnmpa Kaani
region of Lake Titicaca to establish a
complex network of fertile raised
fields (t). Some of these irrigation
systems (such us the Nazca underground
aqueducts) hove survived into modern
limes; others have recently been revived
and are proving far more successful than
modern methods.
4 Irrigation systems in the Am dean Region
S*
1 ?mile>
1 I 3 Ifomdw
A NAZCA: UNDERGROUND AQUEDUCTS
NEAR CAHUACHI
liter ttrrietauwt oquKkxf
^_^-^_ J ^Ei v i ' Grande
D i™u.
lQk-my
BMOCKfcSlFAN-PUflM
GflANDE MU
Canii — — Porennml nw
Hood Ssawnol mm
O •■ . |.-J.
£>***»
( PAMPA Ko AMI NEAR
TlWANAXU
CDfMl
] kdiiffimi mound
The Moche culture
Partially contemporary with the Nazca culture, which
flourished until around ad 600, was the Moche culture of
c. AD 1-650, maps 2 and 4B). Their ceramics, painted with
exceptionally fine calligraphy, reveal a ceremonial life
focused on mountain worship, royal mortuary cults, warfare
and the dismemberment of captives. The recent discovery
of an unlooted pyramid (huaca) at Sipan, containing the
burials of two Moche lords, has given us a vivid picture of
Moche burial practices. Accompanied by a number of sacri-
ficed men, women and dogs, these lords were lavishly robed
in garments decorated with gold and silver, copper and
feathers; they were provided with rich grave goods in the
same materials, along with spondylus and strombus shells.
Details of these burials are familiar from decoration on
the painted or moulded pottery. Moche ceramics also
included some of the first (and only) portrait effigies in the
Americas, all cast from moulds and often into the stirrup-
handled vessels common to Peru. Although heavy in
religious imagery, these ceramics are unusually narrative for
South American art, leading some scholars to postulate
influence from other areas such as Mesoamerica.
The cities of Huari and Tiwanaku
Around ad 650 the Moche culture was eclipsed by new art
styles emanating from Huari, near Ayacucho in the south-
ern highlands of Peru (map 3). More distant still lay a city of
comparable complexity, Tiwanaku, near Lake Titicaca.
Although both cities had emerged c. 400, the connection
► In the period id 400-1 000 Andean
South America contained at least three
expansive political entities embracing
distinct ecological zones and ethnic groups.
The city of Tiwanaku extended its control
from the rich farmlands around Lake
Tilicoca to lower valleys in adjacent areas
of southern Pero, northern Chile and
northern Argentina, At about the same
period, during the so-called ""Middle
Horizon", a related |bul probably rival)
polity flourished around the city of Huari
in Peru, displacing the coastal culture of
Moche around ;n 650.
between them remains enigmatic. Most archaeologists
believe that they were not so much dual capitals of one
empire (an older theory) as antagonistic polities, one -
Huari - oriented to the north, the other - Tiwanaku - to the
high timberless plains known as the altiplano.
While recent political instability in the region of Huari
has made it difficult to study, Tiwanaku has been intensively
investigated, unveiling elaborate raised fields (map 4C).
Whether the fields around Lake Titicaca were systematically
organized and harvested by the Tiwanaku state continues
to be controversial. Field research in the Moquegua Valley
indicates late Tiwanaku expansion into a number of
enclaves, with maize in particular being cultivated. Also
subject to Huari influence, this valley was important as the
source of many prized materials which included lapis lazuli,
turquoise, obsidian (volcanic glass) and copper.
-4 The Nazca pottery vessel (/eft) depicting
a seated warrior holding a trophy head is
representative of the cult of trophy heads
which was widespread in South America. The
container with a funerary effigy (right) is
characteristic of the (bavin style.
© THE AMERICAS 12,000-1000 bc pages 24-25 © CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA 500-1500 pages 84-85
THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULF
REGION 2000-1000 bc
A Heferliti - the subject of ihb bust
tarred by the royol sculptor Thutmose -
■mis (he powerful wife of the her slid
phorooli Akhsnolen li. 1 352-36 ic|.
Amending the throne as Ameahalep IV, ihe
king dunged his mime when he introduced
the iiiaflfliheisrk worship of Men, the sun
gad. He [minded a new cardial, Akhelalen
(modern Amarna), but this, like fib religion,
was obondoned after his death.
▼ During lf» New Kingdom period a Row
ol goods such as gold, limber and ivory
from Egypt reached Phoenicia, Cyprus, Crete
and, twiner afield, Ihe interiors of the Hear
East. In return Asiatic products such as
copper and tin - and, before 1450, pottery
from Crete - were imparled into Egypt.
While ihe Egyptian and Hittite empires
played key roles in the extensive
Mediterranean trade networks ol the 2nd
miflermium K, behind the coast there were
oiber powerful siotes - those of the
Assyrians, Babylonians (the Kasite
kingdom |, Hurrnns (the kingdom ol
Mitami) and Elomiles. Much af their
economic power derived from control of
•nporttml overland routes - os well as those
in the Gull.
The eastern Mediterranean became extremely affluent
during the Bronze Age. This prosperity was largely
based nn a booming international trade in which the
Egyptians and later the llittites played key rules (map I).
During the period of the Middle Kingdom (2(1 55- Hod u<:).
Egypt experienced stability under a central government led
by dynasties from Thebes. Dominion over Nubia, which had
been lost during the political disintegration of the First
Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC), was restored, guaran-
teeing access to products from ihe African heartland. Koyal
missions were sent to re-establish diplomatic contacts with
Syria and Palestine, a move that further encouraged trade in
the eastern Mediterranean.
TlIK MlNOAIN AND MVCKNAKAN IIIVIUZATIOrVS
from approximately 2000 in: the Miuoan civilization flour-
ished on the island of Circle, centred around palaces sirch as
Knossos, Phaistos and Mallia, and the island developed its
own script. Initially Dictographs resembling the Hittite signary
and Egyptian hieroglyphs were uaud, but around 1700 BC a
linear script was invented, the so-called "Linear A".
Around 1450 DC most Miuoan palaces were destroyed by
fire. This was once considered to he linked to the massive
volcanic eruption an the nearby island of Thrra (SamorinD,
bui the eruption is now thought to have taken place around
162N BC, One possibility is that the destruction was due to
occupation by mainland Greeks, the so-called Myeciiaeans,
who extended the already far-flung trading networks of the
Minoan.s and adapted the Minoan script to suit their
language, an early form of Greek. This "Linear B" script can
he read, unlike the still uudeeiphcrcd Linear A. Tablets
written in (his new script were found on the mainland and
on Crete. While the Mycenaean culture showed great
affinity with that of Minoan Crete, it also displayed a far
more warlike character: Mycenaean palaces were reinforced
with enormous fortifications and the theme of warfare
dominated their wall paintings.
KiriGIHIM* AM) CITY-STATES OF MESOPOTAMIA
The mighty states of the Assyrians, liabylonians, llurrians
and Elamitcs nourished by controlling hinterland connect-
ions (mop 1 ). In southern Mesopotamia (Babylonia) foreign
trade was increasingly in the hands of private individuals, in
contrast to earlier periods when trade was controlled by
temples or the government. Luxury items such as gold, lapis
lazuli, ivory and pearls were exchanged for Mesopotamian
textiles, sesame oil and resin.
At the beginning of the 2nd millennium there was a strug-
gle for ascendancy and control among the southern cities, in
which Isin and Larsa were early players. Later the city of
liabylon under King Hammurabi (r, 1792-50 BC) conquered
most of the cities of southern Mesopotamia and up the
Euphrates to Mari. Although this empire was relatively short-
lived, it transformed southern Mesopotamia into a single
state. Hammurabi is most famous for his Law Code svhieh,
although not the earliest known in Mesopotamia, is the first
for which we have the complete text.
While these changes were occurring in the south, in
northern Mesopotamia the inhabitants of the core Assyrian
city of Ashur were creating (ratling networks with cities in
Anatolia up to fWX) kilometres (SIX) miles) away, where they
established trading outposts to exchange Assyrian textiles
and "annakum" (probably tin) for silver and gold.
HllTITK K\PA!NSHI|S AM* COYTKACilOrV
To the north and east of Mesopotamia there were, by the
mid-2nd millennium tic, numerous small llurrian (some-
times called Mitannian) principalities, while the llittites
controlled much of Anatolia. Texts written in the wedge-
shaped characters of the cuneiform script tell us there were
other kingdoms in Anatolia such as Ar/awa, Assuwa,
Ahhiyaiva and l.ukka. but their exact location is uncertain.
In 15 ( J5 uc. the llittites under King Mursili defeated
Babylon. Soon afterwards, however, the llittites were beset
by internal dissension and revolts, and lost much of their
extended territory until they were left controlling only
central Anatolia, For about a century very little is known
about events in Mesopotamia and Anatolia. In 14.S0 BC the
llurrian kingdoms were united by King Parrattarna as the
kingdom of Mitanni, and by 1415 itt: the Kassitcs, a people
who had been slowly moving into Uabylonia, had established
dominance in the area. The llittites once again controlled
much of the Anatolian plateau and were heavily involved in
Mediterranean trade, receiving commodities such as copper,
gold and grain as tribute from the cities under their influence
or control. At the same time they were spreading southwards
into the Levant, an area where the Egyptians under the New
Kingdom dynasties were aLso expanding.
»!l*i OF WORLD HIMOtt; P4IT 1
Nk* Kingdom Egypt
Egyptian unity had once again ht-un destroyed when the
llyksiiN, an Asiatic tribe, seized part of the country around
1650 BC, Their rule lasted far about 100 years until Ahmose
(r, 1550-25 at:) drove them out and established the New
Kingdom (1550-1069 lie), a period of great cultural flowering
(map 2). This was also the time of the greatest Egyptian
expansion, predominantly geared towards securing resources
from Nubia and West Asia. Thutmose 1 (r. 1504-1492 BC)
campaigned as far as the Euphrates River, and Thutmose III
(r. 1479-25 lk;) reclaimed Syria, thus extending the empire
to Carehemish. lie also established Egyptian control over
Nubia up to the Fourth Cataract.
Egyptian domination over Palestine and Syria once again
lapsed until Sety 1 (r. 1294-79 bc) recovered 1'alestine, He
initiated a period of fierce competition with the I littites for
control of the Levant, which came to a head at the Battle of
Qadesh in 1275 bc. Although the Egyptians claimed victory
the llittites probably gained the upper hand, as the area
around and south of Danuiseus came under 1 littite influence.
Soon after this battle the resurgent Assyrians under King
Adad-nirari I (r. 1,105-1274 bc) captured the Mitaunian
capital of Washukanni (whose location is still unknown) and,
with the collapse of the Mitauni kingdom, established them-
selves as a power equal to Egypt. In response the [littites
formed a pact of non-aggression with the Egyptians that led
to a period of stability in the region.
Thk "Ska Peoples"
Early in the 12th century BC large movements of peoples
around the eastern Mediterranean coincided with the social
and economic collapse of many of the bate Bronze Age
kingdoms (map 3). A wave of destruction was wrought by
tribes known collectively as the "Sea Peoples": cities on the
Syrian coast and Cyprus were sacked, along with liittite set-
tlements and Mycenaean palaces, and the liittite Empire and
Mycenaean civilization both came to an end.
The Assyrians were not directly affected by these
upheavals and continued to expand. They invaded Babylon
as well as the Levant, where they took advantage of the
collapse of the liittite Empire. However, by [he close of the
2nd millennium Assyrian dominance was also fading and the
kingdom of Elam to the east now became the most powerful
player in the region.
.Xante"' '
Mediterranean St * H
" LU \\r*
♦ GlItt rW«mpi!i>*
♦ ■Havrtjro— jj&r'T.obuF.*
tropic of Cone**
20
r*mi '
• '•*
■
2 Midole and New Kingdom Egypt 2055-1 069 bc
1 1; y,r>::i snultoraid expansion:
* Middle Kingdom pyramid*
under Sufnisfet 1 Tr. 191 7— 1 B72k>
■ Middle Kingdom iambs
unfa Sanu^Hll a 1334-1780
Middle Kingdom Hroptot
imtor Thuimosa III (r. 1 479— 2S BO
■ New Kingdom tomb*
— *■ Ejjypticn <vvmm a hfcrftt
♦ fajvi Kigftor- Nroipfo
pdSyna< HM-4A.I
■4 While the Old Kingdom period is known
a$ the "Age of the Pyramids". The Mew
Kingdom was the era of the vost temples
and lavishly painted tombs ol pharaohs and
nobles in (he Volley ol Ihe Kings and ibe
adjacent areas around Thebes. The Volley
ol the Kings alone hasted 62 rock-cul lambs,
of which the mast famous is that of
Tuluikhamun. His grove was the only one
wbkb archaeologists found largely intact
and if ronlnineci. brides his mummy an
astounding weolth ol grove good; including
dismantled chariots, beds, masks, gomes
and musical instruments.
T Hie movements of the "Sea Peoples"
- bonds who roomed the Mediterranean
during the 1 3tfr tenhrry EC - have been
reconstructed an ihe bash of lew written
sources and htb orchaeologfcol evidence.
In Egypt two attacks by these tribes hove
been documented. Merenpfah
(r. 1213-1103 «C) withstood an attack an
the Nile delta by o united force of Libyans
and the Sea Peoples, they returned during
the reign ol Barneses III 1 1 184-53 1(1,
attacking by land and sea. They were
defeated, but later same settled peacefully
in Egypt, others in Palestine. Egyptian
pharaohs triumphantly retarded their
victories over the Sea Peoples, exaggerating
Ihe threat posed by groups whom ol other
limes they often employed os mercenaries.
It has been assumed that the razed (hies
elsewhere in the Mediterranean werB caused
by Ibe same Sea Peoples, although internal
unrest and earthquakes were probably
) other factors involved.
1 Empires and trade in the 2nd milunhium bc
o Mo*j(*mii settlement C.20M-1 450 k Med goods
~J Hirtiii Empire r. HOOK
■] iwltali Erupt c. 1400k
Hurrion kingdom of Mifonoi r 1400 BC
^] KossitB kilpdtin c. UdOw
2 Assyrian finpira i. T4D0 HI
B Mycsiow ciifeclicei r 13S0«r
ELAM SejiW or territory
-*■ Mycectaeon trode route rad 1 51h-l 3th (enforces BC \
■>■ Ecetho Medtofroreon or overiond rrode rcwle w
•
poneryan
irsronfisors
(o.o nsrhi
me, resin)
o
pjbss
□ metal vessels
H
copper
P gold
C3
In
IS silver
4
l niii
S lope loiuli
»
ivory
rS ember
ttllfeS
O KMP1RES AMI TRADERS I20O-6OD BC pa&t ,!Wi
a
NorrtiBtji tfifc, iixluding the Lukk-a, ShBrcten und Taresh, tfttadt E i;y;r
bui are dofcoled
b
PeIkgi, ^hflkelflsh. Detyen, Tjeker aid Weiriesri luunch sward inteuctflsshil
antxk «i Epi
Ugail and (pot towns pOfiihly destroyed ty Sea People*
sL
&rae and trtto ^Lajetfed ta widBipteac deslratfar
_ft_
loy end Hirtidj cities dBSfioyfld, poisiily by Anntjfiwnj and Ffrfprcs
f
PtesiinV Toesh arte in fauna. Stouten in Sari™
T***
*f
EMPIRES AND TRADERS
1200-600 BC
▼ The Phoenicians emerged as o mojoc
seolrading nation in (he hi millennium el
In ad ton ID ieda i from iheir mountains
and purple dye made from local shellfish,
ihey Iroded copper from Cyprus and other
row motes iok obtained from their colonies
in ike vreslem Mediterranean and further
afield. Their line craft products - including
glassware and ornaments carved from Ihe
ivory of Syrian elephonts - were also highly
sought alter. To the south Ihe Phoenician
homeland bordered on Ate newly founded
slates ol the Israelites and the Philistines -
the latter descended from mis group ol the
''Sea Peoples" who had caused sudr
upheaval in the Mediterranean during Ihe
lale ?nd mSfcnnium EL
3 The Phoskkians c. 800 bc
| Arsa of Greet seifleinenr
3 irno of FtiMnicHtn SBIrfeinflnt
rglnny
From approximately 1200 CO 900 hi: West Asia was in
an economic and political downswing, lloth tile
archaeological anil textual evidence indicates that
there was no longer the vast wealth that had supported the
lavish royal lifestyles and military campaigns of the Late
Uron/.e Age. Although major cities remained occupied, the
empires of the Egyptians, Ihirrians, llittitcs. Elamir.es and
Assyrians no longer held sway over the region. However,
beginning in 911 BC, Adad-nirari II (r. 911-8*)1 BC) started
to re-establish central authority in Assyria (mop 2). After
securing Assyria he sacked hut did not conquer Babylon
and subsequently eon dueled a successful series of cam-
paigns in the llabur region. Expansion of the Assyrian
Empire continued throughout much of the 9th century lit-,
and witii their mighty armies rite Assyrians were to dom-
inate West Asia almost continuously for 200 years until
their defeat by the Medes and Uahylonians in 612 i«:.
Assyrian expansion
The Assyrians did not have a policy of uniform military con-
quest and incorporation; instead they established a pattern
of conquest that emailed first receiving gilts from indepen-
dent rulers, who were considered as "clients". If the client
slate subsequently tailed to provide "gifts" (tribute), the
Assyrians treated this as an act of rebellion and conquered
the state. A local ruler was then appointed, or the country
was annexed and ruled by a provincial governor. This
method of domination and control channelled all the trib-
utes of clients and booty of conquered countries into the
heartland of Assyria. Thus the Assyrians not only acquired
an extensive empire but also great wealth, enabling their
rulers to build fabulous palaces, establish several new capi-
tals and commission works of art ranging from exquisite
ivory carvings to monumental stone reliefs.
Israel ini> Jiimh
The [jcvant was otic of the main areas to suffer the effects of
Assyrian expansion. The Israelites had settled in Palestine,
their traditional "promised land", around 1250 ut: (map 21.
A little later, around 12(10 ut:. the Philistines occupied the
adjacent area of Philistia. Increasing pressure from this and
other neighbouring tribes forced the Israelites to unite
Under one king during the 1 1th century He. The first, Saul,
was defeated bv the Philistines, but his successor David
-
;
Mok^ : 'fit
| A
v, mwr URARTU I ■>:■
-"-onA.Mjfc HawnliiO
QH °™ **- MEDIA
JOOMHH \
^ Sippar-C? *" Ka "^"
ELAM
Oflobyion
ObuM
BABYLONIA |
Ur.k
1 The Assyrian Empire 91 1-82* bc
^| ills
■ 8Hk
On
i
A The Assyrnm controlled their empire by
installing local rulers or provincial (jewel nors
and a system of tribute. From ihe lale °lh
rentuiy orrwords Ihey sometimes enslaved
ond resettled thousands ol conquered
people in areas lor from their hamelonds.
(r. 1(106-966 BC) expanded the kingdom and chose
Jerusalem as its religious and political centre. L'nder David
and his son Solomon (r. 966-26 im;) the kingdom prospered,
becoming an international power and a centre of culture
and trade. Tensions between the northern and the southern
tribes mounted, however, and after Solomon's death the
kingdom was divided into two parts, Israel and Judah.
Tut: At.K of tiii: Phoenicians
To the north Phoenicia had become a major trading empire
after the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization around
1 200 Ht: (pages. 36-J7). Phoenicia consisted of autonomous
city-states such as By bios. Sidon and Tyre, which
established new trade routes and from the end of the 9th
century m: founded colonies in North Africa. Spain and
Sardinia {map .1). Carthage was a wealthy Phoenician
2 Phoenicia, Philistia.
Israel and Judah
BOTjaotlonadom
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 1
Sitn-k
Sea
%
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f a***.
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trading centre and gradually established its own empire.
Phoenician interest in the western Mediterranean led to
clashes with Greeks in southern France and Corsica, while
the Carthaginians later engaged in a power struggle with the
Romans that ended with their city's destruction in 146 bc.
Egypt and Assyria
After the central government of the Egyptian New Kingdom
collapsed around 1069 BC, the country was ruled by two
competing dynasties based in the Nile delta and Thebes.
Nubia, parts of which had been colonized by Egypt from
Old Kingdom times (pages 30-31), now became indepen-
dent (map 4). A family of local lords established itself as a
powerful dynasty, governing from Napata. When the rulers
based in the delta threatened Thebes, the priest of the state
god Amun sought the protection of the Nubian king Piy
(r. 746-716 bc), granting him the title Pharaoh of Egypt.
Piy conquered Thebes and went northwards to put down
opposition by the delta rulers. His successor completed the
conquest of Egypt, reversing centuries of Egyptian domi-
nation of Nubia. The start of the Nubian dynasty marks the
beginning of the so-called Later Period (747-332 bc).
In the early 8th century the powerful Assyrians suffered
a period of weakness, which allowed the kingdoms of other
peoples to thrive, among them the Urartians in eastern
Anatolia and the Chaldeans in southern Mesopotamia
(Babylonia). However, by the middle of the century the
Assyrians were once again expanding, for the first time cam-
paigning north of the Euphrates - where they conquered a
number of city-states which had formed after the collapse
of the Hittite Empire 600 years earlier.
The process continued under Sargon II (r. 721-705 BC),
who expanded the boundaries of the empire beyond those of
the 9th century bc (map 4). By 701 BC the Assyrians had
annexed Phoenicia, Israel and Judah, and in the 7th
century BC they turned their attention to Babylon, where
they were confronted by a powerful culture that would suc-
cessfully hold its own against the Assyrian might. Although
eventually defeating the Babylonians and their Elamite allies
in 694 BC, Assyria always considered Babylon special
because of its history, its culture and the power of its
ancient gods. Thus Babylon was ruled by a member of the
Assyrian royal family as co-king rather than as governor.
In 671 bc the Assyrians launched an attack against the
Egyptians and, after initial setbacks, secured domination of
the country. However, they never completely controlled it
and, after a number of additional campaigns, they withdrew
to leave friendly "client kings" in place. During this period
Egyptian culture flourished, with Greek Classical and
Hellenistic influences becoming increasingly prominent.
The Nubians, meanwhile, retreated southwards.
The Neo-Babylonian Empire
In 626 bc, after 60 years of stability and growth under
Assyrian co-kings, a Chaldean who took the royal name of
Nabopolassar seized power in Babylonia and established
what is known as the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian Empire.
Ten years of civil war between the Babylonians and the
Assyrians followed, but by 616 bc Nabopolassar was strong
enough to take his armies north, where he defeated the
Assyrians and their Egyptian allies. In 615 bc the Medes,
who originated from the area around Hamadan, sacked the
Assyrian capital Ashur. In 612 bc the combined forces of
the Medes and Babylonians besieged and sacked Nineveh,
effectively bringing the Assyrian Empire to an end.
Soon afterwards Nabopolassar was succeeded by his
son, the biblical conqueror Nebuchadnezzar, and the Medes
began their extensive conquest of the Iranian Plateau. They
were eventually defeated around 550 BC by the Persian
leader Cyrus, who went on to conquer Babylon in 539 bc.
The fall of Nineveh in 612 BC can be seen as a turning point
between the millennia that saw the old empires of Egypt,
the Hittites, Babylon and Assyria rise, fall and rise again,
and the arrival of new players on the world stage: these
were the Persians and the Greeks, who also went on to
establish extremely powerful entities that finally clashed.
▲ In the early 8th century bc waning
Assyrian power allowed neighbouring
kingdoms to prosper. The Urartians, centred
in eastern Anatolia around Lake Van,
greatly expanded their territory, notably to
the south. They had adopted a number of
ideas from the Assyrians - including the use
of cuneiform writing - but they had their
own distinctive culture and were skilled in
working both bronze and iron.
In Babylonia the Chaldeans, an Amorite
tribe, became prominent. The languishing
Gulf trade revived under their auspices, and
the resulting wealth and stability enabled
Babylonian cultural life to continue, assuring
the survival of Mesopotamian literary and
scientific traditions.
Assyrian power grew once again in the
late 8th century bc, and after gaining
control of Babylonia and the Levant the
empire was soon in conflict with Egypt.
Assyria made a partially successful attack
on Egypt in 671 bc, returning in 663 bc
and attacking Memphis, prompting the
Nubian ruler Taharqo to flee south to
Thebes. Within just 40 years, however,
Assyria itself was attacked and subdued by
the Babylonians, who continued to rule in
Mesopotamia until 539 bc, when Babylon
fell to Cyrus of Persia.
© THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULF REGION 2000-1000 BC pages 36-37 O THE AGHAEMENID AND HELLENISTIC WORLD 600-30 bc pages 42-43
CLASSICAL GREECE
750-400 bc
A Gicek Dft ond nichilHture had a
profound effect on the Romans. Ihk
Roman marble (opy of Alheno, goddess
of war and wisdom, was based on a
statue by the Greek sculptor Myron in
lh* iili ■:■:•■ v U The original would
have been made of brame using the
"last-wax" technique, a method thai
enabled the Greeks to portray the most
lifelike of figures.
▼ During ihe 8th and 7lh centuries it the
Greeks tome la play a pivalal rale in the
growing Mediterranean trade. However,
iheir ambitions also led lo confrontations
with rival merchant forces, nolabry Ihe
2 Colonization and trade
750-550 bc
Principal totanr^faunillncj city
• Colony nsratjIisM Mm 700 lc
• Cilcny nslahlished 7DQ— fcOQ m.
Q Calm) isirjalM ato (00 It
• Phawlctan ralr/rv
More than 7(10 years after the fall of Mycenae (pcuics
36-J#*), a new civilization flourished in Greece. The
cultural and political life of Crreeee. and particularly
of Athens, in the 5th century BC was to have a profound
impact on Western civilization. In Athens the principles of
democracy were established and scientific and philosophical
reasoning taken to unprecedented heights. The Athenian
literary tradition - exemplified hy the tragedies of Sophocles
and the comedies of Aristophanes - formed a central part
of its legacy. Also in Athens, architecture and forms of art
such as sculpture and vase painting tm>k on the Classical
styles that still influence the Western sense of aesthetics.
The Greek landscape is dominated by the sea and by
mountains, which cover 80 per cent of the mainland and
reach heights of over 2,000 metres (6,000 feet) {map 1 ).
Authors such as Plato glorified a past when the countryside
was lush and densely wooded, but by the 1st millennium Be
poor soil and the scarce rainfall during the summer months
limited the possibilities for growing crops. Modern botani-
cal and geological studies reveal a remarkable stability in
the Greek countryside during the last 3-4,000 years, until
the recent industrialization of agriculture. Today's farmers
grow labour-intensive crops such as apricots and grapes in
the valleys along the coast, cultivate cereals and olives on
the less fertile mountain slopes, and use the mountain pas-
tures as grazing land. It is likely that the ancient rural
population of Greece practised a similar mixed agriculture,
supplemented with marine resources.
The Creek city-states
Whereas the many islands in the Aegean Sea provide secure
points for navigation and promote maritime traffic, cross-
country communication is hindered by the mountains,
which leave many areas isolated. In these mountain pockets
independent, self-governing city-states, or/jci/eis, developed
during the St 1 1 century BC. Their focal point was usually an
urban centre positioned on a defensible rock: the ucropalix
(literally the "high town"). This functioned as the political,
administrative and religious centre tor the surrounding
countryside. .Some city-states expanded their influence and
came to dominate; others remained on a more equal footing
with neighbouring cities, with whom they acted as a federal
unit in matters such as foreign policy. During the 8th
century BC a sense of a Greek identity emerged, primarily
based on language and religion - and expressed in the pan-
Hellenic (all-Greek) festivals such as the Olympic Games
and the shared oracles at Delphi and Dodona.
From around 75(J E»C food shortages, political unrest and
trade interests prompted the Greeks to venture out and
I maf-**
Cortu
t VEGEMHOHAHuAGRKiuTUM
^ WsuHntrmtw _, tor
■ CmrsoriltlMs
_
A Geography ond natural resources set the
porameleis for Ihe politicol and cultural
development of Classical Greece. Often
separated from each other by mountains,
the city-slates evolved independently, many
of them tefying on travel by seo. A lack of
high-guoliry agricultural land further
encouraged expansion overseers.
establish new city-states well away from home (map 2).
These colonies retained the culture and religion of the
mother cities, yet in a political sense functioned independ-
ently. The earliest colonies in Syria (Al Mina) and Italy
(Ischial, founded by Kretria and Chalets, were primarily
trading posts, hut the quest for arable land probably played
a key role in the colonization of Sicily and the Klack Sea
area, mostly by Chalets, Corinth and Miletus. While these
trade connections and colonies were of great cultural sig-
nificance, promoting an exchange between the eastern and
western Mediterranean areas, they also led to major con-
flicts, for example with the Phoenicians (pages 38-39).
WjU) with Persia
In the east tile expansion of 1'ersia's Aehaemenid Empire
(pufiett 42-43} led to confrontations with the Greek cities of
Asia Minor (mup 3}. With the support of Athens and Erctria
these cities rebelled against the Persian king Darius I in
4W lie, and the rebellions were not finally suppressed until
-PJ.l in:. Darius then demanded the submission of all the
mainland Greek cities, but Athens and Sparta refused. In
4°2 lie: Darius sent out a punitive mission, which backfired
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART I
after most of the Persian fleet was lost in storms around
Mount Athos. When Eretria was sacked in 490 bc Greece
was divided on how to respond, but the Athenians and a
small Plataean force took the initiative and defeated the
Persians at Marathon that year. Infuriated, Darius's succes-
sor Xerxes prepared an even larger invasion, to which many
of the Greek city-states responded by mounting their first
united force, led by Sparta. The Athenian leader Themi-
stocles interpreted the oracular pronouncement that they
should rely on Athens's wooden walls to mean strengthening
their navy, and he enlarged the fleet to 180 ships.
The first confrontation took place in 480 BC at Thermo-
pylae, where the Spartan rung Leonidas held out bravely but
was defeated. After inflicting considerable losses on the
Persian navy at Artemisium in 480 bc, the Athenians with-
drew to the Bay of Salamis. They knew they could not
defeat the Persians on land and so left their city to the
enemy, who burned Athens to the ground. The huge Persian
fleet followed the Athenian navy to Salamis but was unable
to manoeuvre within the narrow straits there and was oblit-
erated in 480 bc. The following year, at Plataea, the Persian
land army suffered a similar fate at the hands of the
Spartans, and the Greeks dealt the Persians the final blow in
479 bc at Mount Mycale, where the Persian troops had
taken refuge. The small and independent Greek city-states
had managed to defeat the greatest empire at that time.
Athens and Sparta
Athens gained tremendous prestige through its contribu-
tions to the victory over the Persians and, when Sparta
declined, seemed the obvious leader of an anti-Persian pact.
Although the main aims of this confederacy, the Delian
League, were protection against the Persians and seeking
compensation for the incurred losses, the Athenians soon
used the alliance to build an empire. They imposed heavy
tributes on their allies and punished revolts mercilessly. In
454 BC the Delian League's treasury was moved to Athens
and funds were overtly channelled into the city's coffers. A
grand building scheme was launched to restore the city,
crowned by the construction of the Parthenon (477^138 bc)
and the Erechtheum (421-406 bc). This was Athens's
Golden Age, much of it masterminded by Pericles.
Sparta and other Greek cities watched the growth of
Athens with suspicion. Not only did they fear Athens's mili-
tary power, but they were also wary of democracy, Athens's
radical contribution to political innovation. This rule of the
people (women, slaves and foreigners excepted) was per-
ceived as posing a direct threat to Sparta's ruling upper
classes and, after mounting tension, war broke out in 431
bc (map 4). It was a costly conflict: Attica's countryside was
sacked annually and the population, withdrawn within the
city's walls, suffered famine and plague that killed a quarter
of its number, including Pericles. The Peloponnesian War
lasted 27 years, ending with Athens's downfall in 404 bc.
▲ The Greeks exported their political and
social ideas alongside their art, and various
colonies around the northern shores of the
Mediterranean are still littered with temples,
theatres, gymnasia and agoras, or market-
places. The remains of this late Sth-tentury
temple are at Segesta in Sicily - a focal
point for Greek trade. Its columns are in the
simple Doric style, first of the three major
orders of Classical architecture; the
progressively more complex and ornate
Ionic and Corinthian styles followed later.
3 Im Persian Wars 492-479 K
«■ NMiw<tolKsnteifleei4fO«
— •> NminrtolPtflaillefiittd>iti|480tC
. NqoTbafem-4tfK
Pbwi Empn TO K
PtramwssdaoHM*
▲ The Persian kings Darius I and Xerxes
planned three invasions in their attempts to
subdue mainland Greece. While the first
failed in 492 bc, the second and third (490
and 480 BC) posed such a serious threat
that Greece responded as a united force.
T The unity displayed by Greece during
the Persian Wars was short-lived. Athenian
imperialist policy led to war with Sparta and
its Peloponnesian allies - described by the
historian Thucydides as the most appalling
of all the Greek wars in losses and suffering.
AETOLIA o^crtnA
BOeOTIA fKuicij _ .^
Nogj»* b EWphP T>*b«v, ; - J"*™
J^ACHAEA dpT?j^ cf * WD cP J^ ^ ,
PEIOPONNESE M '°"
425
Sparta
f*f CARtA
\<?
4 The Peloponnesian War 431 -404 bc
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.-
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C r 1 1 «
Hotantww
© THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULF REGION 2000-1000 bc pages 36-37 © THE ACHAEMENED AND HELLENESTIC WORLD 600-30 bc pages 42-43
THE ACHAEMENID AND HELLENISTIC WORLD
600-30 BC
T On his succession in 359 BC Philip II
was master of a tiny kingdom, yet he
transformed the Macedonian army into a
formidable fighting machine - increasing
the numbers of aristocratic cavalry,
introducing the heavy infantry phalanx
armed with sarmas (long pikes), and
mounting sieges of unprecedented
efficiency. By his death in 336 BC Macedonia
was a major power, dominating Greece and
threatening the Persian Achaemenid Empire.
His son Alexander, charismatic leader and
military genius, inherited Philip's ambitions
as well as his army, and he conquered not
only the Persian Empire but also lands well
beyond. However, his attempts to weld his
vast conquests into a unified empire under
combined Macedonian and local rulers
ended with his early death in Babylon at
the age of 32.
Following the fall of the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, in
612 BC, the former Assyrian Empire was divided
between the Babylonians and the Medes, with a small
corner of the extensive new Median territory occupied by a
dependent related Indo-Iranian tribe, the Persians. In
550 BC the Persian King Gyrus, of the Achaemenid family,
rose against his overlord and occupied the Median terri-
tory. Learning of this, King Croesus of Lydia (a country rich
in goldmines) saw an opportunity to enlarge his empire to
the east. He consulted the Delphic oracle, which prophe-
sied that he would destroy a great kingdom and, confident
of his success, Croesus faced Cyrus at Hattusas. The battle
ended in stalemate, however, and Croesus retreated to
Sardis, followed by Cyrus, who besieged the city until
Croesus's surrender in 547 BC - when Croesus realized that
the kingdom whose destruction the oracle had referred to
was his own.
The Persian Achaemenid Empire (map 1 ) now encom-
passed the Lydian territory, including the Greek cities on
the coast of Asia Minor which Croesus had annexed in
585 BC. In 539 BC Gyrus also conquered Babylon. He was
said to have been a just ruler who allowed his subjects reli-
gious freedom and did not impose excessively harsh taxes.
The Persian satrapies
In 530 BC Cyrus was killed on campaign and was succeeded
by his son Cambyses, whose greatest military feat was the
annexation of Egypt in 525 BC. After Cambyses and his
brother mysteriously died, Darius I (a cousin of
Achaemenid descent) came to the throne in 521 BC. Rather
than accepting the existing administrative structures as his
predecessors had done, Darius organized the empire into
20 provinces or "satrapies", each ruled by one of his rela-
tives. To ensure efficient government he created a road
network and installed a regular system of taxation based
on the gold Daric coin.
Darius added the Indus province to the empire and
brought Thrace under Persian rule in 512 BC, but his attack
on the Scythians in the Danube area was unsuccessful.
Darius suffered another setback in 499 BC, when Cyprus
PHRYGIA
IONIA "
Epfewt^' LyD|A CILICIA
Hnlitamaiilujg;
TIBARENE
HoUuki XIX
ALARODIA
XVIII
ARMENIA
A Persian rule combined an empire-wide
legal and administrative system with an
acceptance of local customs, practices and
religions. Trade prospered under the
Achaemenids, facilitated by the efficient
road network, a standardized system of
weights and measures, and the innovative
use of coinage. Sophisticated irrigation
works using underground watercourses and
canals increased agricultural productivity.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 1
1 iHf EXPANSION OF THE ACMEMENID EMPIRE
| Persim cue Hrajtvy before SSO w ^\ f-gyphan kangdom ainexed c. SIS a
Nedinn kingdom onrtoxed( 5 SO V, ^ final eKpanskHi under Dcms and Xerxes
| Lydian kingdom ameied t. W Hi * Cosh between Peisin and subjected stare
3 SWonkJi kingdom anrawd <. S3) ei XVI Ariioemenid surnay
\
BACTRIA
XII
tA
Arabian Sen
and the Greek city-states on the coast of Asia Minor
revolted. Although Cyprus was swiftly brought back under
Persian rule, the Greek rebellion persisted until 493 bc.
The missions sent by Darius and his successor Xerxes to
punish the mainland Greeks for their support ended in
Persian defeats in 490, 480 and 479 bc (pages 40-41). The
rest of the empire remained intact until it was conquered
by Alexander the Great.
Macedonian expansion
When Darius invaded Thrace, Macedonia had little choice
but to become a Persian vassal, and it remained a marginal
state on the international political scene until Philip II
ascended the Macedonian throne in 359 bc. Philip forged a
professional army, unified Macedonia and, having gained
control of Thessaly, expanded into Illyria and Thrace, bring-
ing important harbours and goldmines into the empire.
His expansion (map 2) met with hostility from Athens
and Thebes, whose military power had greatly diminished
during the Peloponnesian War. After his victory over a com-
bined Theban-Athenian army at Ghaeronea in 338 BC,
Philip was the undisputed master of Greece until his assas-
sination in 336 bc - just as he was preparing to invade
Persia. His 20-year-old son Alexander III succeeded him, and
after crushing opposition to his reign in Macedonia he joined
the remainder of his father's army in Persian territory.
Having defeated the army of the Persian satraps at Granicus
in 334 bc, Alexander faced Darius III (r. 335-330 bc) at Issus
in 333 bc. On a narrow coastal plain he dealt the Persians a
devastating defeat and captured Darius's family.
He then conquered Syria, Egypt and Mesopotamia before
confronting Darius again in 331 bc on the plains of the Tigris
near Arbela. After a long battle, Darius fled and Alexander
moved on to sack Persepolis in retribution for the destruc-
tion of Athens in the Persian Wars some 150 years earlier.
In the east, Alexander's self-proclaimed status as King of
Asia was threatened by rebel satraps. However, in 327 BC he
crushed remaining opposition in eastern Iran and
Afghanistan, before invading northern India. His ambition
had now shifted to expanding beyond the boundaries of the
former Persian Empire, and he crossed the River Indus in
326 BC; he hoped to proceed to the River Ganges, regarded
as the eastern limit of the inhabited world, but was stopped
by mutiny in his tired army. Instead he subdued the tribes
along the River Indus and returned to Babylon, where he
died in 323 BC of fever, exhaustion or possibly poison.
Alexander the Great had forged an empire which
stretched from Greece to the River Indus (map 3) and
which merged Greek and Oriental cultures. Greek became
the common language, and Greek gods were venerated side
by side with local deities. Both Macedonians and Persians
ruled as satraps, and Alexander encouraged his generals to
marry Persian women, as he himself had done. He founded
70 new cities, many called Alexandria, which acted as
military but also cultural centres of the new cosmopolitan
society. Alexander's success was rooted in his prowess as a
military leader, a role in which he displayed great personal
courage, and in clever propaganda, such as the construc-
tion of a myth proclaiming his divinity - a belief which he
himself seemed to share.
Alexander's successors
After Alexander's death a long power struggle ensued
between his generals, the so-called "War of the Diadochi"
(successors). The main contenders were Antigonus of
Phrygia, Seleucus of Babylonia, Ptolemy of Egypt, and
Antipatros, in charge of Macedonia and Greece. Macedonia,
generally regarded as the seat of legitimate rule, became the
centre of continuous conflict. After the murder of
Alexander's son by Gassander, son of Antipatros, the various
successors all proclaimed themselves kings between 306
and 303 BC (map 4).
While this marked the definite end of Alexander's
empire, the war was not yet over: after renewed hostilities
three kingdoms (later called the Hellenistic Kingdoms) were
securely established by 275 bc. The Antigonids ruled in
Macedonia, the Seleucids in Syria and the Ptolemies in
Egypt, but their reigns ended when the Romans captured
their territories (in 148, 64 and 30 BC respectively).
Meanwhile the successors of Ghandragupta - who, after
Alexander's death, had founded the Mauryan Empire and
taken control of the Punjab region - remained in power
until approximately 186 bc (pages 46-47).
-4 Alexander's army met the Persian forces
of Darius III at Issus in 333 BC - and scored
a victory that both heralded his conquest of
southwest Asia and signalled the beginning
of the end for the 220-year-old Achaemenid
dynasty, rulers of the first Persian empire.
This graphic detail, modelled on a 4th-
century bc Hellenistic painting -
commissioned by Alexander's own generals
- is taken from the mosaic at the House of
the Faun in Pompeii. It was created in the
late 2nd or early 1st century bc - clear
evidence of Alexander's enduring reputation
among the Romans.
T Throughout the lands of Alexander's
short-lived empire, Greek culture blossomed
under Hellenistic rule, usually enriched by
indigenous cultures; even in India, at the
very limit of Alexander's conquests, it had a
lasting effect. Developments in astronomy,
medicine, mathematics and engineering
took place alongside patronage of the arts,
the building of libraries and the
encouragement of education. With the
Roman Empire acting as intermediary, these
achievements laid the basis for a later
European civilization.
, _ CjApdloaia Sinspe
fjtaH
tfyigj Byzantium q
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4 The successor kingdoms
Kingdoms uriiiei :
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© THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE GULF REGION 2000-1000 bc pages 36-37 © THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 bc-ad 400 pages 54-55
THE BIRTH OF WORLD RELIGIONS
1500 bc-ad 600
T The Islcenturyjurvritnessedo schism in
Buddhism: the resultant Mahoyano
Buddhism ottered universal salvation and
spread through Control Asi: and Chnn,
while the more conservative Thetovoda
Buddhism became influential in
Southeast Asia.
By d<)0 AH a series of major religions had spread
throughout Eurasia [map I). Distinguished from
other, more local beliefs by a focus on holy writings,
or script u res, most of them continue to flourish today,
The oldest religion is Hinduism. Its sacred writings, the
Vedas. were first compiled by seers and priests, or rishis,
and were based on myths, legends and hymns passed down
from antiquity. Many of the beliefs and rituals of Hinduism
had their origins in the sacrificial cults introduced to India
JAPAN
Pa< [fie
Occoii
2 The spread of Buddhism to as 600
| Ongmd core orec »t Buddtrsni 6fli r«injry K
Spread #
— *■ Ehjddhcrn by lsr raftiy u
— *■ Mcfcitro Hud*™ ton Itt «*»» t
— »- DHMRfafiudchunhitiSticiriUYit]
• StUCfl A rtorfmcdiliyi
by the [ndo- Aryans from around 151X1 im:, while others were
indigenous and ean be traced back to the Indus civilization
(;ift,t|es J^-J^j; iruleed it derives its name from tile river.
Central to Hinduism are a belief in the transmigration
of souls, the worship of many deities (who eventually eame
to he seen as aspects of one god), the religious sanction of
strict social stratification, the caste system, and the ability
to assimilate rather than exclude different religious beliefs.
Unlike most of the later major religions. Hinduism never
really spread beyond the bounds of its home country,
although it was very influential in some of the early states of
Southeast Asia [pages 64-65).
Tut: si'ithAi) of Buddhism
Siddhartha Gautama (c. 563-483 bc), the founder of
Buddhism, was horn a wealthy prince in northeastern India
(map 2). Renouncing worldly trappings and achieving
enlightenment, or nirvanu, he became known as the
Isuddha < the I'm lightened). Gautama lived at a time of great
religious ferment in India, and liuddhism was one of a
number of seels that aimed to reform Hinduism. Another,
more extreme, reform movement was Jainism, whose
asceticism was a reaction to the rigid ritualism of I tinduism.
Buddhism shared with Hinduism the belief in the cycle
of rebirth, but differed in the way in which escape from
the cycle could be achieved. Indeed the appearance of
liuddhism stimulated a resurgence in Hinduism, which may
be why liuddhism failed to take a permanent hold in India.
T Several launders ol world relrgiorts -
notably Buddha, Confucius, Zoroosler and
Chrisl - lived in the hi millennium M or
immednlely alter il. ludorsm and Hinduism
hod their roots in earlier limes, when ninny
peoples worshipped local gads.
1 Would RELIGIONS TO AD 600
3 CtmlKJiiTi by u 392
^] (Iwtmirnstotbteiiii 391-600
| cononfanoni ton fcti century BC
_! torqesircrttm eJdjfched under
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 1
Buddhism was given official backing by the Mauryan
Emperor Ashoka (r. 272-231 bc), and Buddhist monuments,
such as the great stupa at Sanchi, were built. Over the
following centuries Buddhism - with its emphasis on over-
coming suffering and breaking out of the endless cycle of
rebirth through discipline, meditation, good works and the
banishing of desire - spread throughout much of Asia,
reaching Japan in the 6th century AD. Great Buddhist
centres, based around religious communities, developed.
Confucianism and Daoism
Two philosophical traditions were dominant in China when
Buddhist monks arrived there in the 4th century ad.
Confucianism, named after the author of the Classics,
Kongzi, or Confucius (551-479 bc), propounded a set of
morals encouraging a way of life ruled by the principles of
order, hierarchy and respect. Confucius worked for much
of his career as an administrator in one of the Warring
States (pages 48-49), and his ideas subsequently greatly
influenced political philosophy in China and many other
parts of East Asia.
The other tradition, Daoism, or "the Way", called for
people to find ways of being in harmony with the world. It
was based on the teachings of the philosopher Lao-tze,
written down in the Dao De Jing (probably in the 3rd
century bc). In its combination of cosmology and the sanc-
tification of nature, certain mountains were considered
especially sacred and became the focus of worship.
Zoroastrianism and Judaism
In West Asia a new religion developed out of the ancient
Indo-Iranian belief systems during the 1st millennium BC.
Zarathrustra, known to the Greek world as Zoroaster, lived
in Persia, probably during the 10th century bc, though some
date him from 628 to 551 BC. Zoroastrianism, the religion
named after him, had a major impact on the development
on many other religious traditions, including Judaism and
Christianity. Its scriptures, the Avesta, set out the Zoro-
astrian belief that life is a constant struggle between good
and evil. Zoroaster rejected the pantheism of the Indo-
Iranian religions and proclaimed one of the ancient deities,
Ahura Mazda (the "Wise Lord") as the one supreme god.
Zoroaster believed that the end of the world was imminent,
and that only the righteous would survive the great confla-
gration to share in the new creation.
Following the death of Zoroaster his teachings spread
throughout the Persian Achaemenid Empire of 550-330 BC
(pages 42-43) until the conquests of Alexander displaced
Zoroastrianism with Hellenistic beliefs. Renewed interest in
Zoroastrianism developed towards the end of the Parthian
Empire (238 bc-ad 224), and it was taken up as the official
religion of the Sasanian Empire, where it flourished until
the arrival of Islam in the 7th century.
Zoroastrianism had considerable influence on the devel-
opment of Judaism (map 3), which had originated with the
people of Abraham - nomad groups living in the northern
Arabian Desert in the 2nd millennium BC. Jewish tradition
holds that these Hebrew people spent time in slavery in
pharaonic Egypt before leaving under the leadership of
Moses around 1250 BC. They settled in Canaan and fought
with the local inhabitants, particularly the Philistines, until
peace was achieved under King David around 1000 BC.
Jewish communities were established in Egypt in the
2nd century BC, in Italy from the 1st century AD, in Spain by
ad 200 and in Germany by ad 300. The teachings of
Judaism form the Old Testament of the Bible; in addition,
Jewish law is recorded in the Talmud, the first codification
being the Mishnah, written down about ad 200.
The rise of Christianity
Named after its founding figure, Jesus Christ (c. 4 bc-ad 29),
Christianity (map 4) developed from Judaic roots.
Christians believe in one God and that Jesus, born in
Bethlehem, is the Son of God - the Messiah whose arrival
on Earth had long been promised in the Jewish tradition.
Jesus's radical teachings and disregard for the establishment
led to his death by crucifixion, an event Christians believe
he overcame in the Resurrection. In the first few centuries
ad, Christianity flourished in many parts of the Roman
world, and Christ's teachings (written down in the New
Testament) spread by apostolic figures such as Paul of
Tarsus. By 600 it had travelled from its origins in the eastern
Mediterranean as far as the western shores of the Caspian
Sea in the east and the British Isles in the northwest.
< Eorly Christians were often persecuted
by the Romans, who saw them as a threat
to the stability of the empire because they
refused to acknowledge the divinity of the
Roman emperor. By ad 64 Nero used
Christians as victims in the imperial arenas,
and in the early 4th century Diocletian
organized campaigns against them.
However, Diocletian's successor Constantine
legalized Christianity, and at the first
"Ecumenical Council" (held at Nicaea in
325) he brought church and state together.
Constantine had converted to Christianity
after a key victory over his rivals in 31 2, a
victory he ascribed to the power invested in
him as the servant of the Highest Divinity,
which he equated with the Christian god.
Many sects emerged during this early
spread of Christianity, and councils were
periodically held to discuss the doctrinal
disagreements raised - with some sects
declared heretical as a result.
T After the death of David's son Solomon
in 926 bc, the iewish lands were divided
into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah,
which then had a turbulent history of
division and conquest by Assyria, Babylonia
and, lastly, by Rome. Between ad 66 and 73
rebellion against Roman rule broke out, but
the empire reconquered Jerusalem in 70,
destroying the Jewish temple. Following a
long siege at Masada the last of the rebels
were crushed in 73, and after a second
revolt was brutally put down (1 32-35)
many Jews left Judah (called Judaea by
the Romans).
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© RELIGIONS OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD 600-1500 pages 62-63 O THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 600-1000 pages 68-69
FIRST EMPIRES IN INDIA
600 bc-ad 500
A By the 6th century tic prosperous slates
in the Ganges Valley were competing foe
dominance, expanding not only by military
■'■ '•!>■■ i bul oka through dynastic
marriages and political alliances - a trend
that set the partem for the rise and fall of
slates in subsequent centuries. Strong rulers
such as the early Mouryos and the Guptas
succeeded in uniting large areas to farm
empires, hut weak successors were unable
to hold them together.
► Despite their oWse origins and
different political histories, the invaders
of the subcontinent fallowed a common
pattern. Each group introduced new cultural
elements - seen, for example, in art styles
influenced by the Hellenistic world - hut
far more marked was their "Indtoniiatiorf.
Most of them readily adopted Indian culture,
setiling in towns such as Talcsas^a (Taiilaj at
fAathura, converting tD Buddhism or other
Indian religion;, potroniiing on and
architecture, profiling from South Asia's
flourishing inter notional trade, and on I he
whole becoming socially ossimikjled.
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During the 2nd millennium bc Indo-Aryan nomads
were the first of many groups from Iran or Central
Asia to invade the Indian subcontinent. Initially they
spread only into the Ganges Valley, but according to legend
(given support by recent archaeological work), around
500 bc a group led by Prince Vijaya also gained control of
Sri Lanka. In 530 bc the Persians conquered the northwest,
but the area subsequently fell to Alexander the Great (pages
42-43) and the Indo-Greek kingdoms that emerged after his
death dominated the region for several centuries. However,
neither Persians nor Greeks ever penetrated deeper into the
subcontinent, due to the strength of native dynasties.
Kingdoms and empires
By 500 bc kingdoms existed throughout the Ganges region.
Chief among these was Magadha, favourably located for
control both of riverborne trade and of the sources of raw
materials such as iron. Magadha gradually expanded at the
expense of its neighbours and before 297 BC its king,
Chandragupta Maurya, ruled most of north India (map 1).
His grandson Ashoka (r. 272-231 bc) further extended the
empire, conquering Kalinga in 261 bc, and only the extreme
south retained its independence. Pillar and rock edicts mark
the extent of Mauryan political authority: these proclaimed
Ashoka's ethical code of social responsibility and toleration.
It was an age of peace and prosperity.
The political unity of the Mauryan Empire did not long
survive Ashoka's death in about 231 BC Numerous inde-
pendent kingdoms emerged, such as the Satavahana realms
in western India, but none was strong enough to resist the
waves of foreign invaders (map 2). The Sakas, arriving from
Central Asia around 130 bc, gradually gained control of
much of the north and west. They were succeeded by the
Parthians from the Iranian Plateau and the Central Asian
Kushans, who loosely united the Ganges Valley and the
northwest until the mid-3rd century ad. From the 5th
century ad onwards, the north was prey to attacks by the
ferocious Hunas (White Huns) who swept in from the east.
By the time they reached the Ganges Valley or the
Deccan, the force of foreign invasions was spent, and Sri
Lanka and the south were generally spared. Instead they suf-
fered periodic attacks by native groups such as the
Mauryans, Tamils and Guptas. In the 4th century AD the
Guptas, who ruled a small kingdom in the Ganges region,
began to expand, gaining control of adjacent regions through
military conquest, diplomacy and dynastic marriages. Unlike
the earlier Mauryan Empire, however, they established only
indirect political authority over much of this area, local
rulers usually acting under their suzerainty.
Rural and urban development
Much of the subcontinent, such as the jungle regions, was
unsuited to agriculture and was inhabited by hunter-
gatherers. In addition to the wild produce they collected for
their own needs they obtained materials for settled farmers,
such as honey, venison and lac (used for lacquer), exchang-
ing these for cultivated foodstuffs and manufactured goods.
Throughout this period the majority of South Asians
dwelt in villages. Rice was the main staple in the east and
Sri Lanka, millet in the south and wheat in the north;
animals, particularly cattle, were kept. By around 500 BC
irrigation works such as canals, dams and tanks were being
constructed to increase agricultural productivity. Rulers -
particularly the Mauryas, who exercised strong centralized
control over their realms - also encouraged the cultivation
of wasteland, often by the forced resettlement of groups of
low-caste cultivators. In Sri Lanka sophisticated hydraulic
engineering developed from around 300 bc, using sluice pits
and long canals. Land taxes and levies on produce provided
the main income for states throughout the period, although
trade also yielded considerable revenues.
Many towns and cities developed as centres of trade and
industry, and they flourished even during periods of weak
political control (map 3). Many, especially in the west and
south, were ports for seaborne trade. They contained
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"I'll M IK AMI RELIGION
By die early centuries mi regular
seaborne trade linked southern India S™™ B^Mo.
and Kh Lanka with countries to both
east and west (mop -t I- The Komans
traded gold iri exchange fur gemstoncs,
textiles and spices: tn the- east. Indians
and Sri Lanka ns obtained gold, tin and
spices from the kingdoms of Southeast Asia
(pages 52-53). In addition, Southeast Asia
acted as an entrepot between Chins and
India. China also traded overland along (he Silk
Road, which skirted the deserts of Central Asia,
from north India Chinese goods, particularly silks,
were carried through Persia or by sea to Alexandria.
Rome's principal port tor trade using the Indian I leean.
These land and sea routes also carried Indian religions
to the lands of the east In the mid- 1st millennium l<>" a
iiujiiliiT of new religions appeared, notably Buddhism atid
.laittism (/KijCe.s 44— 15). They rejected Hrahminieal Hindu
orthodoxy, including the caste system, and were enthu-
siastically adopted hy the lower castes, merchants and
craftsmen. Buddhism rapidly became the dominant religion
in north India, later spreading into the south. Ashoka sent a
Buddhist mission to Sri Lanka, where King Devauampiya
Tissa became an ardent convert, establishing a Buddhist
realm which lias endured until today. Simple complexes of
monastic cells grew hy the early centuries AD into sub-
stantial monasteries, usually richly endowed hy royalty,
merchants and guilds. Located on (he outskirts of towns and
along the great highways, they supported Buddhist monks
and turns, accommodated travellers, provided education and
could raise venture capital.
1'nder the Guptas Ic. 320-550) there was a major revival
of Hinduism, which had continued in some areas and was
now enhanced by features adopted from the breakaway reli-
gions, particularly bkakd I personal devotion to deities or
saints). Buddhism gradually withered away in the country
of its hirlh but remained vigorous in Sri Lanka, China.
Japan, Tibet and Southeast Asia, Hinduism was also intro-
duced lo the latter region, and a patchwork of Buddhist and
Hindu stales developed there Ijxuivs 62-6,1).
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© FIRST CIVILIZATIONS: MESOPOTAMIA AND THE INDUS REGION 4000-1800 bc pages 28-29 © THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-1400 pages 88-89
FIRST EMPIRES IN CHINA
1100 BC-AD 220
► In the 8th century ec regional entities
began to assert their independence from the
Zhou state, fighting among themselves for
dominance as well as fending off attacks
from barbarian neighbours. By the late 5th
century power was concentrated in seven
principal states - Han, Wei, Zhao, Qin, Chu,
Yon and Qi. They all built enormous walls to
protect their borders, fortified their cities
and even their villages, and constructed
roads and canals to expedite the movement
of troops and supplies. As military
technology and the science of warfare
flourished, the organization, weaponry and
ferocity of the Qin army combined to give
them superiority over the other Warring
States, and in 221 bc the Qin united the
whale area to form the first Chinese empire.
T The conquests in Central Asia of the Hon
emperor Wu Di and his embassies
to the west opened up a major trade route
linking East and West. Merchant caravans
took Chinese goods (especially silk) as far
as the Roman Empire in exchange for
Western luxury goads. Well-preserved
documents from northwestern China and
along this "Silk Road" record the everyday
life in garrison towns.
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In the period between the victory of the Zhou king Wu
over the Shang in the mid-1 lth century BC and the
downfall of the last Han emperor, Xian Di, in ad 220,
China underwent a series of political, economic and philo-
sophical transformations that were to lay the foundations
for Chinese government and society until the 20th century.
The first Chinese dynasties
The Zhou, possibly descended from nomads, established
their royal capital at Hao in their ancestral heartland in the
Wei River valley. For 250 years Zhou rulers held sway over
a unified domain, their rule legitimated by the Mandate of
Heaven - the divine right to rule China - which they
claimed to have inherited from the Shang. Long inscriptions
on fine bronze vessels record their achievements. By
770 BC, however, the empire had begun to fragment, and
under pressure from barbarian tribes to the northwest the
Zhou capital was moved east to Luoyang. Despite the con-
tinued claim of Zhou kings to the Mandate of Heaven, real
power slipped away to a multitude of regional states.
By 403 BC seven major "Warring States" were competing
for control of China (map 1). Through a series of tactical
victories beginning in 280 BC, and under King Zheng from
246 BC, the state of Qin achieved supremacy by 221 BC.
Zheng had reformed Qin, replacing the old kinship-based
government with an efficient bureaucratic state.
Proclaiming himself Shi Huang Di, "the First Emperor", he
established his new capital at Xianyang. Despite an early
death in 210 BC, he left a legacy that paved the way for Liu
Bang, the founder of the Han dynasty four years later, to
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▲ Chang'an, the capital of the Han from
206 ic to ad 23, had a population of
about 250,000. Famed for its towers, it
boasted wide boulevards, immense walls
and gates, religious buildings, palaces and
royal pleasure gardens. Its great markets
were at the centre of a network of trading
emporia that stretched across the empire.
build the Han Empire (map 2). Liu Bang and his descen-
dants ruled China from 206 bc to ad 220, with a brief
interruption during Wang Mang's Xin dynasty (ad 6-23).
Movements of population
By ad 2, the date of the first national census, China had a
recorded population of 57 million. This huge number was
often mobilized for warfare or vast public works, and in the
reign of Wu Di (141-87 bc), the "Martial Emperor" who
greatly expanded the territories of the empire, some two
million people were resettled in colonies in the north and
northwest. However, the later part of the Han dynasty saw a
major movement of population southwards - a process that
was precipitated by a major shift in the course of the Huang
He River between ad 2 and 11 that left much of north China,
traditionally the centre of power, depopulated.
The art of war in early China
These mass population movements occurred in a country
unified through major developments in the art of war. Under
the warlords of the Warring States, both individual gallantry
and mass brutality were displayed, and armies became pro-
fessional. From the 6th century BC new weapons, notably
iron swords and armour, had replaced the traditional bronze
halberds. Cavalry outmanoeuvred chariots on the battlefield
and the new cities became targets for siege warfare. The
Zhao stronghold of Jinyang was besieged for a year before
the attackers turned on each other in a classic piece of
Warring States treachery. From the 5th century BC the
states built pounded-earth walls along their frontiers.
While earlier rulers either mounted expeditions against
the nomadic "barbarian non-Chinese" or were harassed by
them, the Qin and Han were aggressively expansionist. To
keep the nomads out of his new empire, Shi Huang Di joined
the sections of walled defences earlier states had built, thus
creating the Great Wall. The Xiongnu, among the most
aggressive of the Central Asian peoples (pa^es 50-51,
52-53), were particularly troublesome for the early Chinese
empires, and the Han emperor Wu Di's constant search for
allies against them created new links with the middle of the
continent. The nomads often had to be bought off as much
as driven away by force, as shown by the Chinese treasures
from the tomb of the Xiongnu chief at Noin Ula. Under the
Han, military expansion was backed up by a programme of
colonization, and commanderies were set up in areas as far-
flung as modern Korea and Vietnam.
Town and country living
A truly urban civilization developed in this period, with
walled cities becoming the focus of trade, as in the case of
Chang'an (map 3). Many modern Chinese cities are built on
foundations laid in the Zhou period, and the earliest
Chinese coins, miniature bronze knives and spades come
from Zhou cities. Coinage was standardized by the First
Emperor and the multitude of local mints was finally
brought under central control in 119 BC.
The empire depended on the production of a wide range
of goods and services, and in particular stable agriculture
(map 4). Agricultural productivity was increased by gov-
ernment reforms and the use of more efficient tools,
especially new ploughs made of iron. The importance of iron
was recognized through the introduction, again in 119 bc, of
state monopolies over its production, along with control of
the production of salt and alcohol.
Politics and the end of the Han Empire
In the period of the Warring States, a political philosophy
developed that recognized the uplifting nature of public life,
but also viewed politics as ultimately corrupting. Clashes res-
onate throughout the history of the early Chinese empires
between, on the one hand, the authoritarian politics of many
of the rulers and, on the other, the high ideals of Confucius
(551-479 bc) - perhaps the most influential of all Chinese
philosophers - and his Reformist successors, which placed
emphasis on virtue and fair government. Unlike their Shang
predecessors, rulers were bound more by codes of human
conduct than the demands of the spirits. Laws were first cod-
ified in the state of Wei under the rule of Duke Wen
(r. 424-387 BC). Although much criticized, these formed the
model for the Han law code. It was, however, peasant revolts
inspired by messianic beliefs, often drawing on Daoism, that
disrupted and weakened the Han Empire towards the end of
its life. Movements such as the revolt of the Yellow Turbans
in 184 ad, punished by the slaughter of over 500,000 people,
left the empire open to the ambitions of powerful indepen-
dent generals who divided up its territories between them.
▲ Die massive mausoleum of Shi Huang
Di, "the First Emperor", located at the Qin
capital of Xianyong (later Chang'an under
the Han dynasty), took 700,000 conscripted
labourers 35 years to build. The life-size
terracotta soldiers pictured here were
among the 7,500 that guarded the vast
burial pits surrounding the elaborate tomb.
T While rice, millet and wheat were the
staples of Han agriculture, supplemented by
vegetables, many areas also produced other
commodities such as timber or fruit. Hemp
was grown to make clothing for the
majority, while silk supplied the elite.
Iron was produced from the 6th century sc
and was used for the majority of tools and
weapons. Salt production was another major
industry, obtained from the sea in coastal
regions but elsewhere mined from brine
deposits often found deep underground.
© CHINA 1700-1050 BC pages 30-31 © EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD 618-907 pages 72-73
PEOPLES OF CENTRAL ASIA
6000 bc-ad 500
T Between 1 500 and 800 BC copper- and
bronze-working were token up and refined
across the Central Asian steppe - at the
same time as a new way of life appeared,
linking European Russia with the western
borders of China [map 2). Horses and
wheeled transport allowed people to exploit
areas where pasture was too sparse to
support herds in one place all the year
round. Encouraged partly by changes in
climate and vegetation, people took up a
nomadic existence, moving with their herds.
These animals, formerly kept for meat, were
now mainly reared for milk which was made
into a variety of foods, including cheese,
yoghurt and fermented drinks.
Among the nomads were groups speaking
Indo-European languages {imp 3). They
probably included Tocharian speakers in the
Tarim Basin, where there have been finds of
desiccated mummies of individuals with a
strongly European appearance which date
from this period. In West Asia, texts that
include Indo-European terms identify other
Indo-European-speaking groups, including
the leaders of the non-lndo-Europeon-
speaking Mitanni.
Central Asia is a vast arid zone of steppe grasslands,
looming mountains and inhospitable deserts. On its
southwestern mountain fringes an agricultural way of
life developed as early as the 6th millennium BC at sites like
Djeitun, and some of these communities later developed into
towns and cities (map 1). For example, Altyn Depe was first
occupied in the 6th millennium, was enclosed by a wall in
the 4th millennium, and by the 3rd millennium covered an
area of nearly 30 hectares (74 acres) with craft production
areas, elite compounds, fine burials and large platforms
reminiscent of the great Mesopotamian ziggurats (pages
28-29). Agriculture in this region depended on a precarious
irrigation system that collapsed around 2000 BC. However,
later inhabitants such as the Persians (later 1st millennium
bc) and Sasanians (from the 3rd century ad) devised more
complex underground irrigation canals (qanats) which again
brought prosperity to the region.
Up to the 5th millennium BC settlements were scattered
along the rivers of Central Asia. These often consisted of par-
tially subterranean houses and were home to small groups
of hunter-gatherers who caught fish and a variety of game
and collected plant foods. Later these hunter-gatherer com-
munities began to adopt pottery and aspects of food
production from the agricultural or pastoral groups with
whom they came into contact (map 2).
Settlement and pastoralism
By 4500 BC small permanent communities had appeared in
favoured regions of Central Asia on the margins of Europe
and West Asia, growing crops and, more particularly, herding
livestock. Some of these were among the first to domesticate
the horse, initially for meat. Their successors used wheeled
vehicles: indeed four-wheeled wagons appeared in burials in
1 Southwestern Central Asia C 6000-2000 bc
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excellence and trading entrepots.
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southern Russia in the 4th millennium BC, and by 2000 BC
the chariot dominated battlefields from Mesopotamia to
China. The introduction of the spoked wheel (replacing the
heavy solid wheel) made these vehicles much more man-
oeuvrable. Horse-riding was first adopted around 2000 bo
by peoples dwelling north of the Caspian Sea. By 1000 BC
full nomadic pastoralism had developed, from which
emerged the horse-riding warriors who were to become the
scourge of the Classical world.
While the origins of Indo-European speakers are still a
matter of heated debate, many scholars would now place
them among the groups dwelling between the Black Sea and
Caspian Sea in the 4th and 3rd millennia bc. These are
archaeologically identifed as the Srubnaya and Andronovo
cultures and their predecessors. During the 2nd millennium
BC groups speaking Indo-European languages can be identi-
fied in adjacent areas (map 3). By the beginning of the 1st
millennium ad Indo-European languages were spoken in
Europe as well as much of West Asia, Iran, South Asia and
parts of Central Asia.
By the 1st millennium BC a fusion of nomadic and
sedentary cultures gave rise to several kingdoms in south-
western Central Asia, which by the mid-6th century BC were
largely under Persian control. The Achaemenid kings of the
Persian Empire built roads, fortified cities and developed
irrigation systems, and the influence of Persian culture was
felt deep into Central Asia. Persian rule came to an end with
the campaigns of Alexander the Great, and Hellenistic
systems of administration and culture spread throughout
the region (pages 42-43). The Graeco-Bactrian kings were
the first to establish links across Central Asia with China.
The nomad confederacies
In the later centuries BC a series of powerful confederacies
emerged among the nomad peoples. Historical accounts of
these nomad societies and the threat they posed to the
Classical civilizations have been left behind by Greek,
Roman, Chinese and other authors, who named great tribal
confederacies, including the Xiongnu and Yuezhi in the east,
and the Scythians, Sakas, Cimmerians and Sarmatians
further west (map 4). These nomad groups buried their elite
in great mounds such as those at Noin Ula, Pazyryk and Kul
Oba. Horses, central to the nomadic way of life, often played
a major role in burial rituals, sacrificed to accompany their
owners, along with much gold and silver and lavishly deco-
rated textiles, some of which have been marvellously
preserved in the frozen conditions of the tundra. Such rich
burials are described by the Greek historian Herodotus,
whose accounts closely match the archaeological finds.
These nomads wore highly decorated clothes and orna-
mented their bodies with tattoos. Hemp was not only used
for textiles but was also smoked, as evidenced by remains
of smoking paraphernalia. Stringed instruments also found
in the tombs attest a love of music and song.
The Xiongnu formed one of the greatest of the nomad
confederacies. Originating on the Mongolian plateau, they
conquered and ruled the oasis cities of the Turfan Basin in
the 2nd century BC. While they sometimes harried the
borders of the Chinese Empire, on other occasions they
enjoyed good trading relationships with China (pages
52-53), as can be seen in the presence of exquisite Chinese
silks and other manufactured treasures, such as bronzes and
lacquer, in the burial of a Xiongnu chief at Noin Ula.
Xiongnu expansion drove other nomad groups further west,
including the Yuezhi, who settled on the Oxus (Amudarya)
River. One branch of the Yuezhi, the Kushans, later estab-
lished an empire in northern India (pages 46-47).
The Xiongnu and other nomad peoples developed a dis-
tinctive culture, marked particularly by a splendid tradition
of zoomorphic art. Other shared practices included binding
children's heads in infancy to produce an elongated shape.
They also developed major innovations in equestrian and
military equipment, such as the composite bow or the scale-
armour which made Sarmatian cavalry such formidable
opponents of the Romans. Similarly the Huns, mounted
steppe warriors armed with powerful reflex bows, wrought
havoc in 5th-century Europe and northern India (map 5).
▲ From the 1st millennium bc substantial
population movements took place in the
steppe region. Groups often spilled over into
adjacent settled lands, in some cases laying
waste settled communities before being
driven off, as with the 8th-century
incursions of the Cimmerians into West Asia.
Sometimes the invaders settled and became
incorporated into the civilization of the lands
they overran - the Sakas and Kushans in
South Asia, for example. China successfully
resisted many nomad incursions - partly by
erecting massive defences that culminated in
the Great Wall - though its western
provinces fell for a period to the might of
the Xiongnu nomads.
▼ The Huns moved through Central Asia
during the 4th century ad, as evidenced by
finds of their typical large bronze cauldrons,
bows and artificially deformed skulls. One
branch entered Europe in the 5th century,
briefly wreaking havoc under the
charismatic leadership of Attila, while the
Hephtalites (Hunas or White Huns) overran
the Sasanian Empire and laid waste the
cities of northern India, where they
established a short-lived empire.
5 Nomads in the 4th and Sth centuries ad
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© FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: ASIA 12,000 bc-ad 500 pages 18-19 © EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD 618-907 pages 72-73
EURASIAN TRADE
150 bc-ad 500
▼ Bronze-working cultures had developed
in mainland Southeast Asia during the 3rd
millennium bc, and by 500 »c the bronze
objects that were produced included the
famous Dong Son drums. The drums were
placed in elite burials and probably had a
ritual significance. Made using a "lost wax"
casting technique, they were widely
distributed and reached the islands of
Southeast Asia, where metallurgy was also
being practised. By the 2nd century bc the
area was linked to both India and China by
sea routes which were used by Hindu
Brahmin priests and Buddhist missionaries
as well as merchants. As a result, new ideas
of astronomy, art, science, medicine,
government and religion were spread, and
Buddhist and Hindu states were established
in the region. One of the greatest was
Funan, reputedly founded in the 2nd
century BC by the Brahmin Kaundinyo and
reaching its peak in the 3rd century AD. The
remains of a major Funan trading city have
been excavated at Oc Eo.
In the early 2nd century BC the Xiongnu nomads drove
their Yuezhi neighbours westwards, in the process
making the Yuezhi king's skull into a drinking cup. In
138 bc the Han Chinese emperor Wudi sent Zhang Qian to
the Yuezhi, hoping to make common cause with them
against their mutual Xiongnu enemies. After enormous
difficulties and numerous adventures, Zhang Qian reached
the Yuezhi in the Oxus Valley - and although he failed to
persuade them to renew their conflict with the Xiongnu, he
took back to China detailed accounts of the lands he visited
and the new opportunities for trade that they offered.
Over the following century Han China established trade
routes through Central Asia which, despite passing through
some of the most inhospitable terrain in Eurasia, soon pro-
vided access to West and South Asia and indirectly to the
Roman world (map 1). For a time the Chinese controlled
this "Silk Road" through Central Asia, establishing the
Western Regions Protectorate with garrisons in the caravan
towns, but the area was always menaced and often con-
trolled by barbarian groups such as the Wusun and,
especially, the Xiongnu. During the first three centuries ad
the western portion was ruled by the Kushans, who had
established an empire in northern India (pages 46-47).
Dependent largely on the hardy Bactrian camel, the Silk
Road trade took Chinese silks (a prized commodity in the
Roman Empire) and other luxuries to India and thence to
the markets of the West. In exchange, many Roman manu-
factured goods found their way to China, along with the
highly valued "heavenly horses" of Ferghana, gems from
India, and grapes, saffron, beans and pomegranates from
Central Asia. Ideas travelled, too: by the 1st century AD
Buddhism was spreading from its Indian home to the oasis
towns of the Silk Road, later becoming established in China,
Korea and Japan (pages 44-45).
A number of possible routes linked China and the West,
their course channelled by lofty mountains and freezing
deserts, but political and military factors were also impor-
tant in determining which routes were in use at any time.
The oasis towns along the Silk Road rose and fell in pros-
perity with the fluctuating importance of the various routes.
The collapse of the Han Empire in the 3rd century AD, the
decline of the Kushans and the break-up of the Roman
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Empire all had their impact on the Silk Road, though links
between East and West continued - for example, taking
Chinese pilgrims to visit the Buddhist holy places in India.
Southeast Asia
By the 2nd century bc sea routes linking India with China
via Southeast Asia were also in common use. While Indian
literature makes only vague references to trade with
Southeast Asia, finds of Indian beads and Western objects
in the region - such as Roman coins and cut gems - and of
Southeast Asian tin in south Indian sites, attest to the
region's contacts with India. The seaborne trade grew in the
early centuries AD, a period when urban centres and states
were appearing in much of Southeast Asia (map 2).
Riverborne trade linked China and mainland Southeast
Asia during the 1st millennium BC, and sea traffic developed
during the period of the Han Empire. In 111 BC Han armies
conquered the formerly independent state of Nan Yue,
establishing colonies and, from ad 40, directly administering
the province. At this time the area to its south was probably
home to a number of small independent chiefdoms united
in opposition to Chinese territorial aggression. Chinese
interest in Southeast Asian trade burgeoned after the fall of
the Han in ad 220, when the Chinese elite fled south, and
trade with the West along the Silk Road was largely replaced
by maritime trade via Southeast Asia to India.
Trade across the Indian Ocean
Trade links had been operating around the coasts of the
Indian Ocean from the later 3rd millennium bc. Regular
seaborne trade took place in the Gulf, Sumerians trading
directly with the Indus civilization, along with the coastal
inhabitants of Oman and Makran and the seafaring traders
of Bahrain. Land or coast-hugging sea routes also brought
African plants and Arabian incense to India and the lands
of the Gulf (pages 28-29). Egypt was economically and
politically involved with Nubia to its south along the River
Nile (pages 30-31), and seaborne expeditions through the
Red Sea were mounted by Egypt to bring back exotic mat-
erials from the Land of Punt, probably situated in Ethiopia.
In subsequent centuries the rise and fall of Mediter-
ranean, western Asiatic and Indian Ocean states and
cultures brought a variety of participants into this network,
including Persians, Phoenicians and Greeks. By the 1st
millennium BC both Arabians and Indians were familiar
with, and exploiting, the monsoon winds to cross the Indian
Ocean instead of laboriously following the coast. These
winds carried them east in the summer, down the Red Sea
and across to India, while the northeast monsoon in the
autumn carried vessels westward from India and down the
African coast. It was not until the final centuries BC,
however, that the Greeks and Romans also became
acquainted with the monsoon winds. The volume of Roman
traffic in the Indian Ocean greatly increased during the
reign of Emperor Augustus (27 bc-ad 14), with perhaps over
100 ships setting out from the Red Sea in a single year.
A Greek sailing manual of around 60 AD, The Periplus
of the Erythraean Sea (Indian Ocean), has provided a
wealth of information on trade in this area. Alexandria was
the starting point for most east- and southbound trade: here
the bulk of cargoes were assembled and shipped down the
Nile as far as Koptos, where they were taken by camel to
either Myos Hormos or Berenice on the Red Sea. Some
expeditions travelled south as far as Rhapta on the coast of
East Africa, obtaining ivory, tortoise-shell and incense - a
round trip of two years because of the timing of the winds.
Others made the more dangerous ocean crossing to
India, where they exchanged gold, wine, manufactured
goods and raw materials for gems, fine Indian cotton tex-
tiles and garments, Chinese silks, spices, aromatics and
drugs. On the return journey they would stop at Kane and
Muza to obtain frankincense and myrrh, reaching
Alexandria within a year of departure. Arab and Indian
merchants also still plied these routes. Unlike the Romans
(whose trade was in low-bulk, high-value commodities,
carried directly between their source and the Roman
world), other Indian Ocean traders dealt in everyday com-
modities such as grain, foodstuffs and ordinary textiles and
might trade in any port.
A A variety of routes linked the countries
of Asia, East Africa and the Mediterranean.
Long-established routes through the Gulf
and across the Iranian Plateau flourished
during the 1st millennium bc under the
Achaemenids and their Hellenistic
successors. From the 2nd century bc the
newly established Chinese trade route across
Central Asia linked with these existing
routes, while Arabs and Indians operated
sea trade across the Indian Ocean, and
desert caravans carried incense from
southern Arabia via the Nabataean state to
Rome. By the 1st century ad hostility
between the Parthian and Roman empires
had closed the overland route through
Persia, and the Romans became directly
involved in Indian Ocean trade. Chinese
goods reached India via the Silk Road and
indirectly by sea via Southeast Asia; from
here they were taken by Roman shipping
across the Indian Ocean, along with Indian
goods. The Axumite kingdom benefited
from this shift, becoming a major producer
of incense, while the Arab states that had
operated the overland caravans declined.
© MESOPOTAMIA AND THE INDUS REGION 4000-1800 bc pages 28-29 © KINGDOMS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA 500-1500 pages 64-65
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
500 BC-AD 400
▲ Skilful political manoeuvring helped
Octavian (Augustus) to secure victory over
his rivals in the struggle to succeed his uncle
Julius Caesar. Augustus used his position of
supreme power well, enacting a raft of
important legal, economic, social and
administrative reforms, reviving traditional
religious beliefs, encouraging the arts, and
constructing and restoring many public
buildings in Rome.
T The Roman Empire was the first state to
bring unity to much of Europe. From the
cold hills of southern Scotland to the deserts
of North Africa, Rome introduced a common
culture, language and script, a political
system that gave equal rights to all citizens,
a prosperous urban way of life backed by
flourishing trade and agriculture, and
technical expertise that created roads,
bridges, underfloor heating, public baths
and impressive public buildings, some of
which survive today. Raman culture also
spread to lands beyond the imperial frontier,
influencing among others the Germanic
Imr bur inns who later overran the empire -
but who would eventually perpetuate many
of its traditions and instiluiions. notably
through the medium of the Christian Church.
The classical world was the cradle of European civil-
ization: if Greece shaped Europe's culture, Rome laid
its practical foundations. Throughout Rome's mighty
empire, science was applied for utilitarian ends, from under-
floor heating to watermills, aqueducts and an impressive
road network. Rome bequeathed to posterity its efficient
administration, codified laws, widespread literacy and a uni-
versally understood language. It also adopted and spread
Christianity, for which it provided the institutional base.
The city of Rome developed in the 7th and 6th centuries
BC from a number of settlements spread over seven low, flat-
topped hills. Ruled by kings until about 500 bc, it then
became a republic governed by two annually-elected consuls
and an advisory body, the Senate. Around the same time
Rome defeated the tribes in the surrounding area and grad-
ually expanded through Italy: in the Latin War (498-493 BC)
it crushed a rebellion of the Latin tribes, incorporating them
in a pro-Roman League, and by the 3rd century BC it had
overrun the Greek-influenced civilization of the Etruscans,
famous for their fine pottery.
Victory over the Samnites in 290 BC led to a confronta-
tion with the Greek colonies in southern Italy, whose defeat
in 275 bc gave Rome control of the entire Italian peninsula.
To strengthen its grip on the conquered territory, colonies
were founded and settled by both Roman citizens and Latin
allies. Swift access to these colonies was provided by an
extensive road network, created from the late 4th century
bc and greatly extended during the 2nd century bc.
Expansion beyond Italy
The first confrontation outside Italy was against the
Carthaginians, who saw their commercial interests in Sicily
threatened by Rome's expansion. During the three Punic
Wars (264-241, 218-201, 149-146 BC) Rome seized terri-
tory formerly held by the Carthaginians (Sardinia, Corsica,
Spain and the tip of northern Africa), but also suffered its
worst defeats. In 218 bc the Carthaginian general Hannibal
crossed the Alps and obliterated the Roman army at Lake
Trasimene (217 bc) and at Cannae (216 bc). To withstand
the Carthaginians, Rome had constructed its first fleet
around 260 bc and became a maritime power with control
over a Mediterranean empire that incorporated the former
Hellenistic kingdom of Macedonia (pa^es 42-43) from 148
BC and Pergamum from 133 BC. As a result, Greek culture
began to exert a powerful influence on Roman life and art.
The newly acquired provinces {map 1 1 created the
opportunity tor individuals to make a fortune and forge a
loyal army. One of these new powerful commanders,
Pompcy ( 106-48 nc), conquered Syria, Cilieia, Bithynia and
Pontus, while Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) annexed
Gaul and expanded the African province.
Caesar's influence had grown to such an extent that the
Senate saw its position threatened and ordered him to
disband his army in 49 bc.
Caesar disobeyed and crossed the Rubicon River - in
defiance of the law that forbade a general to lead his army
out of the province to which he was posted - and ruled
Rome as a dictator until he was assassinated in 44 bc.
Caesar's adoptive son Octavian (63 bc-ad 14) officially
restored the Senate's powers, nominally taking up the posi-
tion of princeps (first citizen) while gradually increasing his
authority. In 27 bc he was awarded the title "Augustus"
("revered one"), and this date is usually taken as the start of
the imperial period.
Augustus's reign brought a period of peace and stability,
the so-called Pax Romana, which would last until ad 180.
His main military efforts were aimed at creating a fixed and
easily defensible border for his empire {map 2). Augustus
conquered the entire area up to the River Danube, which,
together with the River Rhine, formed his northern border.
In the east the frontier was less well defined and was con-
trolled more by political means, such as alliances with
neighbouring kingdoms.
Augustus also annexed Egypt, Judaea and Galatia and
reorganized the legions left by his predecessors, keeping a
firm grip on those provinces that required a military
presence by awarding them the status of imperial province.
The emperor himself appointed the governors for these
provinces, while the Senate selected the governors for the
others. Augustus also reorganized the navy: he based his two
main fleets at Misenum and Ravenna to patrol the
Mediterranean against pirates, while smaller fleets were sta-
tioned within the maritime provinces to guard the borders.
Roman trade
Trade flourished under Augustus's rule. The military infra-
structure such as sheltered harbours, lighthouses and roads
greatly benefited commercial activity, and the presence of
Roman soldiers in faraway provinces further encouraged
long-distance trade {map 3). Gradually, however, the
provinces became economically independent: they started
to export their own products and eventually, during the 3rd
century, began to deprive Rome of its export markets.
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 1
2 The defence of the empire ad
100-300
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■4 Unlike his acquisitive predecessor Trojan,
t mperor Hadrian concentialed on
reinforcing the previous Roman tines,
or f ronhers. He strengthened the Agii
Dtamates tines between the BJiine and
the Danube with a wooden potsode and
numerous forts and is thaughl lo have
storied work on a mudbikt urol and roVtdi
which was to become the African frontier,
the fasotom Uikoe He Mil the first
stone wall lo secure the British frontier -
second 1 was later constructed by Antoninus
Ir. 138—1 61 ) - oral obo reinforced Trajan's
work on the Syrian tines, a porky lolet
continued by Diodelion
This empire after Augustus
Some of Augustus's successors attempted to enlarge the
empire, others to consolidate existing territory'. Whereas
Tiberius (r. AD 14-37) retrained from any expansion,
Claudius (r. 41-54) annexed Maurelartia, Thrace, Lycia and
parts of Britain, while Vespasian (r. 69-79) conquered the
"Agri Dccumates" region. Under Trajan (r, 98-117) the
empire reached its maximum extent, including Arabia and
Dacia by 106. Trajan subsequently subjugated Armenia,
Assyria and Mesopotamia, but these conquests were soon
abandoned by Hadrian (r. 1 17-138).
Under Diocletian (r. 284-305) the empire was divided
into Eastern and Western parts, each ruled by an
"'Augustus'', while the provinces were replaced by a massive
new bureaucracy and the army was greatly extended.
However, the resignation of Diocletian in 305 was followed
by chaos - out of which, in 312, Constantine (r. 306-337)
emerged victorious in the West. In 324 he reunited the
empire and made Christianity the official religion, and in
330 he established a new capital at Constantinople.
Following his death in 337 the empire was divided and
reunited several times before it was permanently split in
395. The sacking of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 (pages
56-57) signalled the end of the Western Empire; to the east,
the empire was to continue in the guise of the Byzantine
Empire until 1453.
JL
T During the reign of Augustus Irode
become Rome's HIeline. lo leed its rapidly
expanding urban population, il depended on
the import of com - first from Sicily Idler
from Africa and Egypt - and to suit the
tastes of Rome's "nouveou* riches' luxury
goods were imported Item even Further
afield - silk horn China, hair lor wigs from
Germany, ivory from Africa. However, the
traffic was twowcty: during the 1st century
JU), for example, Rome developed o
lucrative business supplying the provinces
with products such us wine ond olive oil
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55
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BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
100-500
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▲ Roman legionaries were first called
upon ro defend the empire against a
serious threat from the Germanic tribes
in the 2nd century ad - the date of this
Roman stone relief.
T From the pages of Oermania by the
Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus (55-1 20)
there emerges a clear picture of the
Germanic world of the first century ad,
comprising a multiplicity of small political
units, with any larger structures being little
more than temporary tribal confederations.
By the 350s, however, long-term processes
of social and economic change (largely the
product of extensive contacts with the
Roman Empire) had created a smaller
number of much more powerful groupings.
Of these the Gotones (Goths), then based in
Poland, would have the biggest impact on
Rome and its European dominions.
Throughout its history the Roman Empire suffered
frequent small-scale raids along its European fron-
tier, but major invasions were rare. In the early 1st
century AD a defensive alliance to resist Roman aggression
had been formed under the leadership of Arminius, a chief-
tain of the Gherusci - one of a host of minor political units
that comprised the Germanic world at this time (map 1).
However, the first large-scale invasion of the Roman
Empire did not occur until the 160s, when the movement
of Gothic and other Germanic groups from northern
Poland towards the Black Sea led to the Marcomannic War.
Recent archaeological investigations have revealed the
spread of the so-called Wielbark Culture south and east
from northern Poland at precisely this period (map 2).
Another time of turmoil followed in the mid-3rd century,
associated with Goths, Herules and others in the east and
Franks and Alemanni in the west. Archaeologically, the
eastward moves are mirrored in the creation and spread of
the Goth-dominated Gernjachov Culture in the later 3rd
century. None of this, however, amounts to a picture of
constant pressure on the Roman Empire.
Relations between the empire and the peoples beyond
its borders, whom the Romans regarded as uncivilized
"barbarians", were not all confined to skirmishing and
warfare. Numerous individual Germans served in Roman
armies, while Roman diplomatic subsidies supported
favoured Germanic rulers. Some important trading routes
also operated, such as the famous amber route to the Baltic
(pages 38-39), and there was a steady flow of materials
(timber, grain, livestock) and labour across the border.
These new sources of wealth - and in particular the
struggle to control them - resulted in the social, economic
and political transformation of the Germanic world. By the
4th century the many small-scale political units, which had
relatively egalitarian social structures, had evolved into
fewer, larger and more powerful associations that were
dominated by a social elite increasingly based on inherited
wealth. The main groups were the Saxons, Franks and
Alemanni on the Rhine, the Burgundians and Quadi on the
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middle Danube, and the Goths on the lower Danube (map
2). None had the power to stand up to the empire on their
own, but neither was Roman domination of them total, the
Alemanni even seeking to annex Roman territory in the
350s and dictate diplomatic terms.
The arrival of the Huns
The prevailing balance of power was transformed some
time around 350 by the arrival on the fringes of Europe of
the Huns, a nomadic group from the steppe to the east
(map 3). By 376 the Hunnic invasions had made life intol-
erable for many Goths and they had started to move
westwards. Three groups came to Rome's Danube frontier
to seek asylum: one group was admitted by treaty, a second
forced its way in, and the third, led by Athanaric, sought a
new home in Transylvania. Goodwill was lacking on both
sides, however, and the two admitted groups became
embroiled in six years of warfare with the Roman Empire.
A huge Gothic victory won at Hadrianople in 378 con-
vinced the Roman state of the need to recognize the Goths'
right to an autonomous existence - a compromise con-
firmed by peace in 382. In the meantime the Goths under
the leadership of Athanaric had in turn forced Sarmatians
onto Roman soil, Taifali barbarians had crossed the Danube
to be defeated in 377, and numerous groups of Alans had
begun to move west, some being recruited into the Roman
army in the early 380s. In 395 the Huns made their first
direct attack on the empire, advancing from the area
northeast of the Black Sea (where the majority were still
based) through the Caucasus into Asia Minor.
The division of the Roman Empire into the Western and
Eastern Empires in 395 (pages 54-55) was soon followed by
further invasions (map 3). In 405-6 Goths under the lead-
ership of Radagaisus invaded Italy, and while he was
defeated and killed in the summer of 406, many of his
followers survived to be sold into slavery or incorporated
into the Roman army. At the end of 406 another large group
of invaders - mainly Vandals, Alans and Sueves - crossed
the Rhine. It is likely that, as with the invaders of the 370s,
they were fleeing from the Huns, who by around 420 were
established in modern Hungary, the subsequent centre of
Hunnic power (pa^es 76-77).
The collapse of the Western Empire
By around 410 numerous outsiders were established within
the Roman Empire in western Europe. The Vandals, Alans
and Sueves had pillaged their way to Spain (map 3), and
" '•■'—, atnoi
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2 Barbarians betond the frontier 100-350
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▲ The Romans regarded all peoples
outside their empire as inferior, referring
to them as "barbarians". There were two
main groups: first, the largely Germanic-
speaking settled agriculturalists of central
and eastern Europe; second, the nomadic
steppe peoples belonging to various
linguistic and ethnic groupings who
periodically disturbed the eastern fringes
of continental Europe.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART
the Goths, who had crossed the empire's frontier in 376,
had moved to Italy under the leadership of Alaric. Here
they were reinforced by the former followers of Radagaisus
to create the Visigoths. They sacked Rome in August 410,
but by 420 the Romans had forced them to accept settle-
ment in Aquitaine on compromise terms. Rome had also
counterattacked in Spain, where one of the two Vandal
groups and many Alans were destroyed, before the death of
Emperor Honorius in 423 led to ten years of internal poli-
tical strife which crippled the empire's capacity for action.
During this period the Vandals and Alans, now united
under Geiseric, seized the rich lands of North Africa, while
eastern Britain fell decisively under the sway of Anglo-
Saxon invaders.
The losses in Britain, Aquitaine, Spain and North Africa
fundamentally eroded the power of the Western Empire.
Essentially, it maintained itself by taxing agricultural pro-
duction, so that losses of land meant losses of revenue.
Tax-raising in northern Gaul was periodically disrupted by
Franks and others. By 440 the Western Empire had lost too
much of its tax base to survive. It was propped up for a
generation, however, through a combination of prestige
(after 400 years it took time for the empire's contempo-
raries to realize that it was indeed at an end), support from
the Eastern Empire, and temporary cohesion fuelled by
fear of the Huns, whose empire reached its peak under
Attila in the 440s.
The collapse of Hunnic power in the 450s, however,
heralded Roman imperial collapse. New kingdoms quickly
emerged around the Visigoths in southwestern Gaul and
Spain, and the Burgundians in the Rhone Valley, where
they had been resettled by the Romans in the 430s after
being mauled by the Huns. At the same time the Franks, no
longer controlled by the Romans, united to create a
kingdom either side of the Rhine (pages 74-75). The end of
the Huns also freed more groups to take part in the share-
out of land (map 4). Lombards and Gepids took territories
in the middle Danube, and Theoderic the Amal united
Gothic renegades from the Hunnic Empire with other
Goths serving in the Eastern Roman army. This new force,
the Ostrogoths, had conquered the whole of Italy by 493.
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A In the 5th century o combination of
fear of the Huns (especially for the
Visigoths, Vandals, Alans, Sueves and
Burgundians) and opportunism (notably for
the Anglo-Saxons, Franks and Ostrogoths),
prompted a series of militarily powerful
outsiders to carve out kingdoms from the
territory of the waning Western Roman
Empire. To protect their estates, the basis of
their wealth, many local Roman landowners
decided to come to terms with the invaders,
with the result that the successor kingdoms
all acquired some important vestiges of
Roman institutions and culture.
-4 The frontiers that replaced the divisions
of the Western Roman Empire by 500 were
far from fixed. For example, in the 6th
century the Frankish kingdom grew apace,
the Ostrogoths were destroyed by the
Byzantine emperor Justinian, and the rise
of the Avars prompted the Lombards to
invade northern Italy in 568.
© THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 bc-ad 400 pages 54-55 O FRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-900 pages 74-75
THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
Humans already occupied much of the globe by the year 500. Over the next
thousand years the spread of intensive food production enabled their
numbers to continue rising and a growing area to become more densely
occupied. As a result, states and empires and other complex forms of socio-
economic organization developed in almost every continent. Foremost in
terms of wealth, population and technological achievement was China.
► Between 500 and 1500
intensive forms of agriculture
developed in many parts ol the
world, but the vast grasslands ai
the Eurasian steppe continued to
be populated by horse-breeding
paslorofisl nomads ond semi
nomads. Riding eastwards ond
westwards from Ceatral Asia,
they frequently raided the lands
of permanently settled peoples
who increasingly ased the plough
to cultivate their fields.
1 Food production in the
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► 1 he West African city-
kingdom of Benin - renowned
partly for the brass hoods of
which this is on example -
developed from the 1 3th century
as an important centre of trade.
It was at the southern end of a
network of trade routes across
the Sahara, some of which had
existed for many centuries but
did not became important until
the 9lh century when Muslim
merchants in fionh AFiiio began
to travel southwards.
A number of intensive methods of cultivation
had been developed before 500. However,
the medieval period witnessed the spread of
such methods over an ever-expanding area,
dramatically increasing outputs in parts of Africa
by the 8th century, in eastern Europe by the turn
of the millennium, and in some regions of North
America throughout the centuries up to 1500
{map 1 ). Depending on the environment, different
crops were Involved: sorghum and millet in Africa,
wheat in Europe, and maize, beans and squash
amongst others in North America.
At the same time new intensive farming regimes
were developed which tackled the problem of
sustaining soil fertility in the face of continuous
use. In medieval Europe an unprecedented level of
central planning evolved, based on the manor. This
made possible economies of scale in the use of
expensive items (such as draught animals and iron
tools) and the implementation of a new strategy for
raising production while maintaining fertility - the
three-year rotation system. Wheat was grown in
one year, beans and other legumes to restore
nitrogen to the soil were grown in the next, and the
land was allowed to lie fallow in the third.
On the basis of such advances, populations often
grew dramatically. In England, for example, the
figure of just over one million in about 500 nearly
quadrupled to over four million before the Black
Death (bubonic plague) took its dreadful toll across
Europe in 1347-52, while China's population under
the dynasties of the Tang (61S-907) and Song
(960-1279) increased from just over 50 million in
the mid-Sth century to over 100 million in the late
1 3th century.
Food production and populations did not always
increase, however. Where a figure seems to have
reached its optimum under a precise set of
environmental conditions, a period of depletion
often followed. In Mesoamerica, for example, the
"Maya Collapse" of the 9th century, when the
population dropped dramatically from almost five
million in the Yucatan Peninsula alone, can at least
partly be attributed to degradation of the land
caused by intensive agriculture coupled with a
reduction in rainfall. In western Europe it is
possible that the impact of the Black Death - which
reduced the population by between a quarter and a
half - may have been intensified because numbers
had in places already passed the point of
sustainability for the agriculture of the time.
THE SPREAD OF WORLD RELIGIONS
The Black Death was seen by the Christian
population of Europe as God's punishment for their
sins. Christianity won an increasing number of
adherents in Europe during the medieval period,
while Buddhism spread to East and Southeast Asia.
In India, the land of Buddhism's birth, Hinduism
revived, particularly in the south.
In the 630s the new religion of Islam emerged in
the Arabian Peninsula and through military
conquest rapidly took hold of the Middle East,
North Africa and parts of Europe. It reached the
limits of its westward expansion in 732, when a
Muslim army was defeated at Poitiers in central
France. However, over the following centuries the
states and empires of Islam frequently inflicted
defeats on Christendom. At the end of the 13th
century the Mamluks of Egypt and Syria completed
their recapture of the Holy Land (Palestine) from
the Latin Church and in 1453 the Ottoman Turks
finally succeeded in capturing Constantinople -
capital of the Orthodox Church. Islam also eclipsed
Zoroastrianism in southwest Asia, pushed Hinduism
back in India from the 1190s, and spread into
Central Asia through the conversion of the Mongols
from the late 13th century.
TOWNS AND TRADE
In the ancient world much effort was devoted to
building and adorning cultural and ceremonial
capitals such as Babylon, Athens, Rome and
Constantinople. The medieval period too saw the
construction and expansion of such cities. In
China, Chang'an was adopted by the Tang dynasty
as their capital and was developed to cover an area
of 77 square kilometres (30 square miles), with a
population of about one million in the 7th century.
With Baghdad, the Muslim Abbasids founded what
was to become probably the world's largest city in
the early 9th century, with an area of 90 square
kilometres (35 square miles). The Muslims also
oversaw the development of some of Europe's
largest cities at this time - notably Cordoba and
Seville in Spain and Palermo in Sicily. It was not
until the 12th century that the towns of Latin
Christendom really began to grow, the larger among
them - such as Paris and Cologne - building
magnificent churches, town halls and palaces.
By 1500 only a tiny proportion of the world's
population lived in large cities. In Europe, for
example, just three million out of an estimated
total of 80 million lived in cities with over 10,000
inhabitants. The characteristic form of medieval
urban ism everywhere was the modest market town,
evolved as a sen-ice centre for the local agricultural
economy. It was a place where surplus crops could
be exchanged for other foodstuffs and goods.
making it possible to grow a wider range of crops
suited to local soils. It was also home to a variety of
specialist craftsmen, whose various wares (tools,
leather goods, ceramics, and so on) were made for
sale to the rural population.
< Throughout the medieval
period Agriculture was the
occupation ol itie vest majority
of people. From the !0lh century
it was made more productive in
Europe partly by the introduction
ai the three-year rotation system
and improvements in the design
ol the plough. However, the
pattern af life continued much OS
it always had, dictated by the
seasons. This I Sib-century
illustration of ploughing the
lie Ids and sowing I he winter
grain in October is taken Irom a
Book ol Hours [les Irk ft'rnes
Hemes in Due de Berry), which
was produced by the Franco-
Flemish Limbourg brothers. Like
many medieval calendars, the
book illustrates the changing
occupations of the months, Irani
sowing to harvesting.
▼ China's titles were omong the
most impressive of the medieval
world. A busy street scene is
depicted in this 12th-century
illustration of Knileng, capital of
the Song dynosty between 960
and 1126. Attacks ham the north
by the Juichen then led to the
adoption of the mote southern
Kangzhou as the Song capital
With its estimated papulation ol
one and a half million, Hongzhou
became a symbol of o golden oge
in China's history.
SHHLIMb^BS
-
2 States, empires and cultural regions c 1 200
3] EmpmjOTlsimsotlrtnCbmiirKtan
S N«s «"d sionml OnWoi OmWitaii
^] IMisCWoiisIdih
Sh ErfWariSMtafM
A Stoles ond empires continued
Id rise and (all in the medieval
period Many of those In Eurasia
in 1 200 were la be overwhelmed
by the destructive conquests o(
ihe Mongols in the 1 3ih century.
T The Byzonline Emperor
Juslinian I Ir. 527-45)
atlemplcd to recreate the Roman
Empire ol I be 4th century, before
it was divided into Eastern and
Western parts. Among his
conquests were Italy, where fie
adopted the <ity of Ravenna as
I be imperial (apilai and did mwb
to adorn il. This rith-cenlury
mosaic in (be Church oi San
Wale shows ihe Empress
Theodora with her attendants.
The development of market towns was a clear
sign of growing sophistication in rural economies,
where specialization and exchange (developed in
many parts of Asia, Europe, Mesoamerica and
South America well hefore 500) replaced self-
sufficiency as the basis of agricultural production.
During the medieval period they spread across
Europe and came to play an important role in the
economies of both West and East Africa.
Some towns also serviced regional and long-
distance trade based largely on linking contrasting
ecological zones and dealing in items that were
perceived as luxuries - notably metals, clothing
materials and spices. From the later 8th century
the Viking merchants of Scandinavia linked the
fur-p reducing forests of subarctic regions with the
wealthy cities of the Middle East, while from the
9 th century a growing trans-Saharan trade moved
gold, ivory and slaves between West Africa and the
Muslim north African coast. Trade in a variety of
items, including metal work, stones and cacao,
continued to flourish in Mesoamerica, as did the
movement of silks and spices along the highways of
Centra] Asia until the nomadic Mongol hordes
created havoc there in the 13th century.
STATES AND EMPIRES
Much of the new food surplus was now used to
support people performing a range of specialist
functions, many of which were not directly
concerned with traditional forms of economic
activity. The number of religious specialists grew as
Christianity joined Buddhism in generating
numerous monastic communities. Most specialists,
however, were associated with the spread of states
and empires (mnp 2). A class of literate
bureaucrats - devising and administering laws and
gathering taxes - became a feature of the majority
of medieval states. Long established in parts of
Asia, such people became central to the functioning
of many European states from the 12th century.
Another specialist, even more widespread, was
the warrior. The Chinese Song Empire was
sustained by huge armies, supported by taxes
raised from a dependent rural populace, while in
Japan the samurai became a socially dominant
military aristocracy in the first half of the 2nd
millennium. The great empires of Mesoamerica and
South America were similarly built around large
bodies of specialist warriors. In Europe an elite
knightly class developed from the late 1 1th century,
eclipsing the more widely spread military
obligations of earlier centuries. For 200 years these
knights provided the backbone of the crusader
armies that set out to recover and protect the Holy
Land from the Muslims.
Medieval state structures took many forms. Some
were extremeiv loose associations, such as the
merchant communities of Viking Russia. While
those dill support a king, his rights were very
limited and he and his fellow merchant oligarchs
did little more than exact relatively small amounts
01 tribute from largely autonomous Slav subjects.
The feudal states of western Europe, by contrast,
supported an oligarchic landowning elite who
exercised tight controls over their peasantry. The
kings, however, again had restricted powers; it was
only the development of royal bureaucracies after
about I2tH> that allowed them to exploit llieir
kingdoms' taxable resources more effectively.
The vast Chinese empires were organized on yet
another basis, with an oligarchy of bureaucratic
families competing for power and influence through
a governmental system which they entered via civil
service examinations. Some Mesoameriean states,
such as those of the Maya, also had literate
bureaucracies, while in the 15th century even the
non-literate Incas in South America used their
qitipus (knotted strings) for the record- keeping
vital to any dominant imperial power.
The history of medieval empires and states was
never confined to armies, bureaucracies and
dominant elites. Nearly all displayed progress in
art, music, architecture, literature and education.
Elites everywhere patronized the arts and
sponsored entertainments, as surviving examples
from imperial China, Moorish Spain, early
Renaissance Italy and many other places testify.
Sometimes these cultural spin-offs marked
advances in themselves. In the 8th century, for
example, the monasteries of Carolingian Europe
produced a cursive form of writing that accelerated
manuscript production for the remainder of the
medieval period, and in early 15th-century Korea
the world's first system of moveable metal type for
book printing was introduced.
HKOADEMNC HORIZONS
During the prehistoric period humans had become
widely dispersed as they had colonized the globe.
Nevertheless, many groups had maintained
contacts with their neighbours, exchanging ideas
and materials. The development of civilizations
from the (til millennium HC saw the establishment
of direct political and trade links between
geographically distant regions. Such links increased
very noticeably during the medieval period, in line
with advances in nautical technology.
At the turn of the millennium Viking adventurers
combined the sail power and hull strength of their
ships to forge the first tenuous links across the
Atlantic to America. More substantial connections
were developed by Muslim traders who in their
dhows exploited cyclical winds and currents to
expand the triangular trade that had existed since
the 1st century .\l> between the Red Sea, East
Africa and India. Beyond India the trade network
extended as far cast as China, from where in the
early 15th century expeditions sailed to Southeast
Asia and Africa. Their ships were five times the size
of the Portuguese caravels in which the northwest
coast of Africa was explored from 1415.
While ocean travel would produce maritime
empires outside the Mediterranean only after 1500,
land empires continued to ebb and flow in the
medieval period, with some covering vast areas.
Successive Chinese dynasties controlled states
often larger than modern China. In the 7th century
the power of the Western Turks ran from the
borders of China to the fringes of eastern Europe,
and in the 13th century the nomadic Mongols
conquered a vast area of Eurasia to create the
largest land empire the world has ever seen.
Political, economic and cultural ties between
states all burgeoned in the medieval period,
accelerating the process of making the world a
"smaller" place. However, as well as generating new-
wealth and cultural stimulation, interaction across
Eurasia brought the plague to Europe - to
particularly devastating effect in the Nth century.
The medieval world was a place in which empires
were established and sustained by bloodshed, great
an often flourished because of unequal
distributions of wealth, and the triumph of
Christianity and Islam came at the cost of
widespread persecution.
A In common with Ihe other
world religions, Islam genet rjled
te own style ol ort and
craftsmanship - of which ihit
Hid -ten! my mosque lamp
n on example Geometric and
Hofal patterns adorned me walls
ol masques and secular
buildings, as wall as polls; v
gloss ond melorwot k
TAnkowWol,bdlintnel?ni
century, is perhaps the most
impressive of the Hindu and
Buddhist temple complexes thai
survive among itie ruins of
Angkor in Cambodia Angkor
was the capital ol the Khmer
Empire, which emerged in Ihe
9th century and dominated
mainland Southeast Asia lor
over 400 years.
RELIGIONS OF THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
600-1500
A The magnificent temple complex of
Borobudur in central Java was built between
750 and 850 as an expression of devotion
to Mahoyana Buddhism. This carving adorns
one of the temple walls.
T The rise of Islam from the 630s cut
a swathe across the Christian Mediterranean
world. By way of compensation, missionary
Christianity spread ever further into
northern and eastern Europe, while minority
Christian regions survived in Central Asia,
the Middle East and northeast Africa.
Meanwhile Buddhism, marginalized in the
subcontinent of its birth, extended ever
further north and east, into Tibet, China,
Southeast Asia, Korea and, finally, Japan.
In Southeast Asia it faced in turn o challenge
from Hinduism and then from Islam.
In the period 600-1500 ad all the great world religions
extended their sway. Buddhism, Christianity and Islam
were ultimately the most successful (map 1), but the
older tenets of Judaism and Brahmanical Hinduism still
found converts. Other ancient systems were threatened:
Hellenism, the sophisticated neo-Glassical philosophy of the
Mediterranean world, survived only in a subordinate role,
while localized "pagan" traditions and preliterate belief
systems often disappeared when challenged persistently by
a missionary religion such as Buddhism or Christianity -
particularly if it enjoyed the backing of a government.
The impact of Islam
Islam emerged in the 7th century as a mass movement of
devout converts to the Koranic revelation (pages 68-69),
men who employed warfare to help win adherents from
Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism and the older
localized faiths. It fractured the cultural unity of the
Christianized Roman Mediterranean and totally eclipsed
Zoroastrianism in Persia. Islamic secular culture absorbed
Classical, Zoroastrian and Hindu traditions as well as those
of the Arabian Desert. However, the global expansion of the
Islamic world (Dar al-Islam) brought subdivision and even
schism. The Islamic sunna (code of law) was variously
interpreted, often regionally, by four separate law schools.
Shiite partisans of dynastic leadership split right away from
the consensual Sunni tradition and developed their own
conventions. By the time Islam reached the Danube in
Europe, the Niger in West Africa and the Moluccas in
Southeast Asia in the 15th century, it was far from cohesive.
The changing face of Christianity
Although Christian minorities held on in Egypt, the Middle
East and Central Asia (map 2), "Christendom" became
increasingly identified with Europe, where both the Western
(Latin) and the Eastern (Greek or Orthodox) traditions
compensated for their losses to Islam by vigorous and some-
times competitive missionary activity. Latin Christianity
won over Germanic-speaking peoples and their central
European neighbours, while large areas of the Balkans and
eastern Europe were converted to Orthodoxy. After cen-
turies of intermittent disagreement between the Latin and
Greek Churches, the Great Schism of 1054 finally brought
about the divide between Catholicism and Orthodoxy.
The crusades of 1095-1291 to the Holy Land were
essentially counter-productive (pages 94-95). They put
Muslims forever on their guard against Latin Christendom
and may have added to the pressure on communities of ori-
ental Christians to convert to Islam. Militant Latin
Christendom was more successful in the Baltic region and
the Iberian Peninsula, where the later medieval period saw
the political reconquest of all Moorish territory. By 1500
Spain had become a launchpad for transatlantic ventures
and the transmission of Christianity to the New World.
The spread of Buddhism outside India
Buddhism lost its western lands to Islam and it never
regained any large-scale presence in India, the subcontinent
of its birth, where the mainstream Hindu tradition predomi-
nated alongside what remained of the Jain faith. Buddhist
numbers were increasingly concentrated in lands to the east
and north and, paradoxically, Buddhist strength was at its
greatest where there was ideological power-sharing with
other faiths - the case in both China and Japan (map 3).
In China the secular philosophy of Confucianism was
revitalized during the Tang dynasty of the 7th to 9th
centuries, retaining its classical status and control of the
education system. It offered moral and intellectual guide-
lines for a life of public service, virtuous prosperity and
happiness to members of the scholar gentry, including the
"mandarins" of the Chinese civil service. Buddhism
remained - like the indigenous Chinese philosophy or
"way" of the Dao (Tao) - as an alternative, culturally sanc-
tioned code, appealing to those who could never hope to
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
achieve the Confucian scholarly ideal or who found its
secular priorities unsatisfying.
In Japan Buddhism had been adopted from China by the
6th century. It became remarkably pervasive and was intel-
lectually and spiritually creative, bringing literacy to the
whole country - but it never ousted Kami (Shinto), a tradi-
tionalist compendium of reverence for nature, land and
state which remained intrinsic to Japanese cultural identity.
Organizational and cultural parallels
Despite profound divergences in creed and world outlook,
the major medieval faiths had organizational and cultural
parallels. All had "professional" adherents who adopted a
consciously devout, disciplined or even ascetic way of life.
While the reclusive tradition of withdrawal to the wilderness
pervaded a range of religious cultures, hermits and wander-
ing "holy men" were never as influential as members of
disciplined religious orders and brotherhoods. The Sangha
(monastic order) was central to the life of the Buddhist
world and included nuns; the Persian Sufi movement was
vital to the spread of Islam among the ordinary people; the
great Benedictine houses of western Europe preserved a cul-
tural and political inheritance through centuries of feudal
disorder - as did, in a similar political context, the great
Buddhist houses of medieval Japan. However, when mendi-
cancy appeared in the West, with the establishment in the
13th century of wealthy orders of friars, it was very different
from the contemplative and ascetic mendicancy of the East.
Medieval religions offered practical services to state and
society. In many countries the educated clergy were the
only people able to write and therefore worked as official
scribes. Churches, mosques and temples operated a broad-
casting system and communications network, and pilgrims
and travellers could expect hospitality from religious found-
ations. Members of many religious communities were adept
at acquiring communal or institutional (as distinct from per-
sonal) wealth. They could operate as financiers and at the
same time expand their sphere of influence; thus Hindu
temples were the banks of South India and 15th-century
Portuguese overseas enterprise was funded by the crusad-
ing Order of Christ.
Much of the ritual year was defined by medieval religion
and, where communal prayer was an obligation, the hours
of the day. The spires, domes and towers of religious archi-
tecture dominated the skylines of major cities. Yet remote
regions retained old beliefs and customs: there were fringe
areas in Mesopotamia where sects clung to the traditions of
the temples as late as the 11th century, and the 14th-
century traveller Ibn Battutah found West African Muslims,
even some of those who had made the pilgrimage to Mecca
(the hajj), amazingly relaxed in their religious observance.
Challenges to the established religions
Challenges to the established religions came from within
rather than from residual "old beliefs". The Buddhist world,
for example, saw the development of eccentric and magical
practices on the margins of the Tantric tradition, while early
Islam experienced a succession of breakaway movements
from the mainstream Sunni community - Kharijite, Ibadhi
and a range of Shiite alternatives. In the Christian world
many "heresies" countered established orthodoxy. Medieval
religious culture was not necessarily intolerant: pilgrimage,
a universal form of devotion, could be a mind-broadening
experience, and different religions were sometimes capable
of coexistence and even co-operation. For example, in the
13th century, at the height of the Christian reconquest of
Moorish territory in Spain, Santa Maria La Blanca in Toledo
functioned peaceably as the mosque on Fridays, the syna-
gogue on Saturdays and the church on Sundays.
2 The Christian world l 700-1 050
| Lrniit QirisiiMi orep 1 700
_l Aim umialed to Lmin ChnsHmily (.700-1050
■1 Orttwta 0n*»! Mi. 100
■ *TO(!lM«!dto0rtfWjlHar6)m>f( .700-1050
| WcrcohifstE OwsTimtfw c700
^ Hflstonon OirislHr ami c. 700
^^ Boundary of nea under Mudfii rule c. BOO
E22 f kIwii of mo umlB MiKfan njg e 1000
▲ The last three centuries of the first
millennium ad saw the steady development
of a deep and lasting cultural divide -
between an Eastern, Greek-rooted Orthodox
tradition and a Western, Latin-based Catholic
culture. Both lost both lands and devotees to
Islam in the Near East and North Africa, but
resilient Christian communities continued to
survive in these areas under Muslim rule.
► The Buddhist canonical divide between
the Mahayana and Iheravada traditions
continued to follow Asia's cultural and ethnic
(aultlines. Wherever it took root in
Southeast Asia, such as Annan (Vietnam),
the Mahayana tradition was widely
regarded as "Chinese" Buddhism, while
recognition of the Iheravada tradition was
associated with independence from the
influence of Chinese culture.
3 Religions in Asia c 1500
| Wnhavona flurtdfiisin
I I TriMNooo Buddhism
| too™ ]] Shinto
I I Confucian J Hinduism
| A™, taptfly tslomkized
3 A™ mil" sijrlcprt Muslim popu«l>m
I toons wiiti scatrard Muslim papulofkin
— *■ Iteaiwi of spread «l tstan n
Soirifepsr Amu. wiiti Botes
© THE BIRTH OF WORLD RELIGIONS 1500 bc-ad 600 pages 44-45 O THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION IN EUROPE 1517-1648 pages 154-55
KINGDOMS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA
500-1500
T Angkorean power reached its greatest
height during the reign of Jayavarman VII
(r. 1 1 81— c. 1 21 8). His capital was Angkor,
at the centre of which was Bayon, a huge
pyramidical temple and one of more than
900 Buddhist temples built by Khmer rulers
from the 9th century onwards. While the
Angkhorean imaUa dominated the
mainland of Southeast Asia for four
centuries, the empire of Srivijaya gradually
gained control of many of the ports and
polities scattered along the coasts of the
archipelago. Although not the closest of
these polities to the sources of major trade
commodities - such as camphor,
sandalwood, pepper, cloves and nutmeg -
Srivijaya did have the advantage of
possessing o rich agricultural hinterland.
In the 6th century Southeast Asia was a region in which
warfare was endemic and the borders of political enti-
ties, known as mandalas, expanded and contracted with
the power of their overlords. The influence of India was
evident in the widespread practice of Hinduism and
Buddhism (pages 44-45). Also evident was the influence of
China, which under the Han dynasty had first begun to
administer the area of Nam Viet (in what is now northern
Vietnam) in 40 ad (map 1). In 679 the Chinese Tang gov-
ernment set up a protectorate-general in the area and the
Chinese commanderies - in particular, that in Chiao-Chih -
became important trade centres. There were, however,
many rebellions, and in 938 independence from China was
secured and the Dai Viet kingdom established. To the south
of Nam Viet was Champa, where fishing, trade and piracy
were more important economic activities than agriculture.
The Khmer kingdoms
In about 550 the capital of the great Hindu kingdom of
Funan, Vyadhapura, was conquered by King Bhavavarman
of Chen-la. Regarded as the first state of the Khmers - one
tf
2 Kingdoms and empires
100-1200
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TAMBRAUNGA
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| iw greo d Chemta c SSO
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▲ By the 6th century Champa included
areas that had previously been part of Nam
Viet to the north and the great Hindu
kingdom of Funan to the south. Funan was
finally conquered in 550 by Chen-la, a
kingdom that had once been its vassal.
of the many ethnic groups in the region - Chen-la had by
the 7th century expanded its power throughout much of
mainland Southeast Asia. In 802 the Khmer king
Jayavarman II established the Angkorean mandala, the
forerunner of modern Cambodia, which was to dominate
central mainland Southeast Asia until the 13th century
(map 2). His new capital at Hariharalaya was on the great
inland sea of Tonle Sap - the key to the floodwaters of the
Mekong that were essential for the intensive rice irrigation
schemes on which Angkor depended.
Thai and Burmese kingdoms
The hold of the Khmers over central mainland Southeast
Asia was to be broken by the Thais. In the middle of the 7th
century the Thais had formed the kingdom of Nanzhao in
southwestern China. Perhaps partly due to pressure from
the Chinese, they had moved south along the river valleys
into Southeast Asia, conquering the Buddhist kingdom of
Pyu in the middle of the 8th century. Around 860 a Thai
polity in the area of modern Thailand was founded with its
capital at Sukhothai (map 2). It was the first of three Thai
kingdoms to emerge on the Chao Phraya River, displacing
earlier Hindu kingdoms such as Dvaravati. The invasion of
southwest China by Mongol forces under Qubilai Khan in
1253-54 pushed more Thais south - probably from the
region of Nanzhao - and the Thai kingdom centred at
Chiengmai was founded around 1275, followed further
south by Ayuthia in 1350 (map 3).
The Burmese kingdom of Pagan was established shortly
after Angkor emerged in Cambodia in the 9th century
(map 2). In 1044 Anawratha ascended the throne and did
much to extend the realm of the Pagan kings, the greatest of
whom was Kyanzittha (r. 1082-1112). These kings built one
of the most elaborate and extensive Buddhist monuments
in the world in their capital at Pagan, where vast temple
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
3 Kingdoms, sultanates amd
TRADE 1200-1450
Approximate &<ren' of'
iM Sukholtioj 1 238
^— • Cjengmcit. 1290
I I Appnainnta awiriil mqii UogAuns
m«»tifl5ltinn*JY
complexes spread 60
kilometres (.15 miles)
across the floodplains of
the Irrawaddy Uiver. This
great building programme was
to ruin the kingdom; in I2.S7, after
a period of decline, Pagan succumbed
to invasion front China,
In the 15th century a new power, Pegu,
developed in lower lliirma (map 3). Pegu fostered
trading links with India and maritime Southeast Asia
through its seaports, which included Martaban. It was also
often in conflict with the inland agricultural state of Ava,
which craved access to the ports controlled by Pegu. Despite
occasional support from Ming China, the rulers of Ava were
constantly harassed 1 by the Shan hill peoples, culminating
in the assassination of the king in 1426, and as a result Ava
eventually gave up its ambitions regarding Pegu.
The i ii rim of Srivijaya
Throughout the Malaysian Peninsula and inueli of island
Southeast Asia, maritime empires flourished. The empire of
Srivijaya (e. 670-1025) (map 2), with its centre near the
modern port of Palembang in Sumatra, was based on control
of the resources of the forests and seas of the Indonesian
archipelago. The city blossomed, its wealth reflected in cer-
emonial centres such as those described by the 7th-eentury
Chinese traveller I Citing, where 1,000 priests served gold
and silver Buddhas with lotus-shaped bowls.
In central Java, kingdoms had developed by the 6th
century in which some of the greatest monuments of the
ancient world were to be constructed (map 2). The
Sailendras, one of the central Javanese royal lineages, sup-
ported Mahayana Buddhism, a patronage that found iis
greatest expression in the magnificent temple complex of
SUNOANeSE
MNGOOMOF . i
MJAIARAN Jo(VO
Borobudur, built between 750 and 850. As
well as being devout the Sailendras were aggressive
warriors, and they mounted a scries of seaborne expeditions
against kingdoms on the mainland; Chiao-Chih in 767,
Champa in 774 and Chen-la of Water in around 800. They
kept control of Chen-la of Water until it was taken over by
the Khmer Empire. They also held sway over large areas of
Sumatra. However, after 860 control over Java moved from
the Sailendras to Hindu lineages, including the builders of
the great Hindu complex at Prambanan.
In the 11 th century a new power emerged in cast Java,
and control of the international trade routes began to slip
away from Srivijaya. In 1025 this process was hastened
when the Krivijayan capital was sacked by Chola invaders
from south India. Airlangga (c. 991— 1049) was one of the
most important of the rtders of this cast Javanese realm,
which came to dominate and grow wealthy on the bur-
geoning international trade in spices. Following Airlangga's
death in 104 l > the realm was divided in two. with Singharasi
to the east and Kediri to the west. In the mid- 13th century
the rulers of Singhasari took over Kediri to lay the founda-
tions of the great maritime empire of Majapahit, which
controlled the region until the 15th century.
A. The tiode routes fat hod fotSitated Ihe
spread ol Hinduism ond Buddhism to
Southeast Asia oho encouraged the spread
al Islam. Il reached fa northern tip of
Sumatra in the 13th century; ay fa 1 Slh
century il had reached Malaya and Java. A
number ol Muslim stores were (tooled at the
expense ol fa fullering Mnjapohil
kingdom, including one hosed on Melako, o
thriving commercial purl which by the end
of fa 1 5th century controlled the Strait of
Malacca. In 1511 Melaka feU lo fa
Portuguese, thus ushering in an era during
which Europeans wreaked great change an
the Muslim, Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms
and empires af Southeast Asia.
© EURASIAN TRADE 150 BG-AD 500 pages 52-53 © EUROPEANS IN ASIA 1500-1790 pages 118-19
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
527-1025
T In the 7th century the traditional
Roman provinces were reorganized into
large fanes that were ruled initially by
military commanders. This was the first
step to ending a system in which the
expansion and defence of the empire
depended on the deployment of mercenary
armies and the imposition of high levels of
taxation on the peasantry.
Throughout their history the Byzantines described
themselves as Romans, and saw their empire as the
continuation, without break, of the Roman Empire.
Consequently, to give a starting date for the Byzantine
Empire is a matter of debate among historians. The date of
527, when Justinian became emperor and launched a far-
reaching campaign of conquest, is one of several options.
Others include 330, when the Roman emperor Gonstantine
the Great moved his capital to the city of Byzantium,
naming it Constantinople, and 410, when Rome was sacked.
Yet another is 476, when the Western Empire virtually
ceased to exist, leaving Constantinople and the Eastern
Empire as the last bastion of Christian civilization.
Fluctuating borders
The history of the empire is one of constantly fluctuating
borders as successive emperors campaigned, with varying
degrees of success, against Persians and Arabs to the east,
and Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and Russians to the north and west
(map 1). Two of the most successful conquering emperors
were Justinian (in power from 527 to 565) and Basil II (co-
emperor from 960 and in sole authority from 985 to 1025).
Justinian looked to the west to regain the old empire of
Rome, and he and his general Belisarius conquered North
Africa and Italy, while struggling to hold the eastern fron-
tier. However, the resources of the empire were not
sufficient to retain this ground, and during the 7th century
most of these territorial gains were lost. The rise of Islam
offered a new enemy with whom the empire was to be in
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conflict until finally succumbing in 1453 (pages 96-97). In
the four centuries between the reigns of Justinian and Basil,
emperors never ceased both to fight and to negotiate for
territory. However, it was in the 11th century that
Byzantium made its greatest gains to the west, with Basil
"the Bulgar-Slayer" bringing the entire Balkan peninsula
under Byzantine control after defeating the Bulgarians. Basil
also forged links with the Rus and Vikings to the north,
employing them as troops in his wars of conquest.
Administrative structure
Totalitarian in ambition and ideology, absolute in his power
to intervene directly in every aspect of both government
and life itself, the emperor was the beginning and end of
the political and administrative structure. Initially this was
based on the Roman system of provincial government. In
the 7th century, however, the traditional Roman provinces
were reorganized into large units called "themes" (map 2),
where the military commander also functioned as civil
administrator and judge. The population of each theme
provided the basis of recruitment for the army, which took
the form of a peasant militia. Ordinary soldiers were given
land in frontier regions and exempted from taxation in
exchange for military service. By the 8th century the
themes were the centres of revolts, with theme generals
becoming pretenders to the imperial throne. Consequently,
throughout the 8th and 9th centuries the central govern-
ment worked to diminish the power of large themes, and by
the 11th century the military commanders had been
replaced by civil governors.
Church and state
Byzantium saw itself as the Christian empire under God, its
mission to reduce the world to one empire. Church and
state were inextricably linked. Ecclesiastical organization
was as hierarchical as that of the state. Five patriarchates,
based at Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria and
Antioch, marked our rhc centres oi' Christian worship in the
Late Roman period and fought for supremacy in
the Church. My the 1 1th century, however, the three
oriental sees were no longer part of the empire, and in the
ensuing centuries it was the struggle between Rome and
Constantinople that a fleeted the course of Byzantine
history. Ueneath the patriarchs was a system of bishopries,
within which the bishops derived considerable influence
from their control of all ecclesiastical properties and chari-
table institutions. The empire also extended its influence
through missionary expeditions, above all in the strategi-
cally important lialkan area (rrurpJ).
;■ ^GDOM OF
1V £ VISIGOTHS
► Under Justinian the Roman provinces of
Allien 1533-34) and Italy IS35-40) were
reconquered. From the mid -6th century,
however, defensive warfare became
endemic, oral in the ecrly 7th century
o (talks by the Avon and Arabs led lo the
virtual extinttitn ol the empire. A
prolonged period of determined defence
followed before Basil II irateded in
expanding me boundories once more in
me Nth century.
1 Boundaries and campaigns oi conoues
527-1025
| Ifyimfaa Empire 527
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
Sen iif
M ti rtii a t n
of
Septimui Severus
200
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Palace
4 Constantinople c. 1025
-*- WdHldQflHl
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Simply called "the City" (map 4), Constantinople was
the most important city in the empire. It was the emperor's
base, and thus the centre of all civil, military and ecclesias-
tical administration. Its position was almost unassailable,
as the Muslim armies who attempted to capture it in the
7th and 8th centuries discovered (pages 66-67). For
almost 900 years it withstood all attacks by enemy forces
until, in 1204, it was overrun and ransacked by the army of
the Fourth Crusade.
T The main trade routes were sea or river-
based and the chief centres of trade were
on the coast. Dominant among them was
Constantinople, which not only served as
the emperor's capital but also as the heart
of Christendom for many centuries.
A The transformation of the small town of
Byzantium into the city of Constantinople
was accomplished remarkably quickly.
There is evidence that by the middle of the
4th century there were 1 4 palaces, 1 4
churches, 8 aqueducts, 2 theatres and a
circus, as well as homes for the inhabitants
who were forced to move to the city from
nearby setttlements. Comparatively little
now survives of Byzantine Constantinople
in present-day Istanbul, but Hagia Sophia,
the great church built by Justinian as a
centre of worship for all Christendom, can
still be seen, along with a host of lesser
churches. A handful of imperial monuments
exist, the most obvious of which ore the
Sth-century city walls in the shape of an
arc almost 6 kilometres (4 miles) long.
The importance of religion in the empire is reflected in
its surviving artistic achievements. Churches and monas-
teries, often beautifully decorated with mosaics and wall
paintings, are to be found throughout the empire's
territories, along with portable works of art, such as
enamels, books, metalwork and, above all, icons. The few
secular buildings and objects that remain are often in Late
Roman cities such as Ephesus - gradually abandoned in the
7th century - but most notably in Constantinople.
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30 I \ \ 40
THE SPREAD OF ISLAM
630-1000
In the second quarter of the 7th century Al> the map of
the world was abruptly and Irreversibly changed by a
series of events that astonished contemporary observers.
Prom the 630s the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula, previ-
ously accorded little attention by the "civilized" world, burst
out of their homelands and attacked the fertile regions to
the north in a series of campaigns that resulted in the com-
plete destruction of the Kasaniait Empire and the end of
Byzantine control of the Near East. They then set about
forging a new social and cultural order in the conquered
territories, based on the principles of the religion they
brought with them - a force which has continued to exert a
profound influence over the region to the present day,
Mtiiunnm tiik "Pkch-hkt"
In the early years of the 7th century tribal Arabian st>ejcty
underwent a transformation: a new communal structure
emerged to replace the traditional tribal divisions that had
hitherto dominated the Arabian Peninsula. This community
was largely the creation of a single man, Muhammad, a
trader from Mecca, the main commercial town {if western
Arabia. Following divine revelations in which he identified
himself as the "Seal of the Prophets" (after whom no others
would come), Muhammad preached a new moral system
that demanded the replacement of idol worship with sub-
mission to a common code of law and the unity of Muslims
("those who submit |to God]") against unbelievers
Although he was persecuted by the Mcccans in the early
years of his mission, Muhammad later enjoyed rapid success
/ Viff //[ ill
-4 Near the onrienl Susonian capital of
(lesiphon I ho Abhouds' new capital city
ol Baghdad wets built ia circular form,
with the Great Mosque and caliph's
palate - symboliiing the close association
al religious and palilkal power - lotoled
together al its centre.
in nearby Medina, where he made many converts and laid
down the rules governing the conduct of the community.
Thereafter he sent missionaries to spread his message
throughout Arabia, and shortly before his death (probably
in 632) he led his triumphant army back to reclaim Mecca.
The victory of Islam
Within a decade of Muhammad's death the Muslim armies
- inspired by zeal for their new faith and a desire for plunder
- had inflicted defeat on both regional superpowers, the
Byzantines and the Sasanians, already weakened by decades
of conflict with each other. The Muslim victories at Vanntik
and Qadisiyya (in 636) opened the way to further expan-
sion (mop /). In M2 the Muslim armies conquered Egypt,
by the nrid-640s Persia was theirs, and hy the late 640s they
had occupied Syria as far north as the border with Anatolia,
The wars of conquest continued, albeit at a lesser pace,
for roughly a century after the humiliation of the Byzantines
and Sasanians. After overrunning the whole of the North
African coastal region and taking root in much of the
Iberian Peninsula, the Muslim state reached the limits of Us
westward expansion into Europe at the Battle of Poitiers in
central Krauce in 732. The one realistic prize which always
eluded these conquerors was Constantinople: in spite of
several Muslim attempts to capture it by siege, it remained
the Pyzantinc capital until 1453.
Interinai, r.ni\Fi,icT
The euphoria generated by these successes was tempered
from the start by disagreements between Muslims concern-
ing several matters - including, most crucially, the question
of who was to lead the community. The Prophet had com-
bined both religious and political authority in his own
person and this model was followed for the first three
centuries by the caliphs who led the community after him.
However. Muhammad had made no arrangement for the
succession, and more than once in the eenturv after his
tr to
1 THE ISLAMK CONQUESTS TC
750
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
death the Islamic world was thrown into turmoil by fiercely
contested civil wars fought over this issue.
In spite of such upheavals, political power was consoli-
dated at an early stage in the hands of the first Islamic
dynasty, the Umayyads, who ruled from their capital in
Damascus for nearly 100 years (661-750). Although much
maligned by later Muslim writers, this caliphal dynasty
succeeded in giving an Arab Muslim identity to the state.
The caliph Abd al-malik b. Marwan (d. 705) decreed that
Arabic (instead of Greek or Pahlavi) should be the language
of administration, began a programme of religious building,
and instituted a uniform Islamic coinage. Trade flourished in
the region, with Syria in particular benefiting from the
revenues flowing into the caliph's coffers.
The Abbasid dynasty
In the middle of the 8th century a new dynasty, the
Abbasids, toppled the Umayyads, whom they accused of
ruling like kings rather than caliphs - without the sanction
of the community (map 2). Abbasid rule witnessed a real
change in the Muslim state, with the caliphs constructing a
grand new capital of Baghdad (also known as the City of
Peace) in Mesopotamia (map 3). It is no coincidence that
Abbasid courtly culture borrowed heavily from that of the
Persian royalty, for the focus of Muslim culture now swung
eastwards from Syria.
At the same time as Islam was expanding internally,
Muslim eyes and minds began to be opened to a wider
world, both through growing trade - in particular with the
Far East - and through a burgeoning interest in ancient
knowledge, primarily Greek, which was furthered by the
translation into Arabic of foreign books.
Like their predecessors, however, the Abbasids failed to
gain universal acceptance for their claim to be the legitimate
leaders of the Muslim world. Although the caliphs conti-
nued to rule in Baghdad until they were deposed by the
Mongols in the mid-13th century, they gradually lost their
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BoLntoyol*btos(IEm(m8S0
territories to local warlords, rulers who governed indepen-
dently while still proclaiming formal subservience to the
caliph. Parts of North Africa, far from the seat of caliphal
power, began to fall outside caliphal control practically from
the first years of Abbasid rule. By the beginning of the 10th
century a rival caliphate was set up in Egypt, and Iraq and
Iran were divided into petty kingdoms, many ruled by
Iranian kings (map 4). In the 11th century these kingdoms
were swept away by the steppe Turks who invaded the
Muslim world and changed the ethnic and cultural map as
decisively as the Arabs had done four centuries earlier.
A By 750 Islam was the major civilization
west of China and one in which there was a
particularly close association between
religion and culture. Mosques served not
only as religious and social centres but
also as centres of scholarship, which was
overwhelmingly Arab in orientation,
although influenced by Greek, Roman,
Persian and Indian traditions. This
painting of Medina, with the mosque of
Muhammad at its centre, comes from an
illustrated Persian text written in Arabic.
▲ Rapid urbanization followed the rise of
the Abbasids, particularly in Iraq and Persia,
as would-be converts flocked to the cities
from the countryside. It has been estimated
that while only 1 per cent of the population
of these regions was Muslim when the
Abbasids came to power, within a century
this figure had grown to SO per cent - and
had reached 90 per cent by the beginning of
the 10th century.
T As the political unity of the Muslim state
began to disintegrate, local cultures
reasserted themselves. The Samonid kings
(81 9-1 005) who ruled from their capital in
Bukhara encouraged the composition of
Persian poetry at their court, while their
western rivals, the Buyid rulers of Iraq and
Persia (932-1062), held the caliph captive
in his palace and styled themselves
Shahanshahs like the Persinn kings of old.
■»■■, KNAZAP.'
EMPIRE
'' tr *oL ■- 2^ QMowl
.^fift^L^t*^
J M ■' o,s I is
J V ' '
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■ 4 Central Islamic lands in the 1 0th cwtury *
1 Boundary tMlwaw ti^doms
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O THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 527-1025 pages 66-67 © THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-1400 pages 88-89
THE FIRST SLAVIC STATES
400-1000
A. An early Premyslid ruler of Bohemia.
Prince Wenceslcis in 925 overthrew his
mother who, OS regenl, wos persecuting ihe
Christians. He continued the Chrislianiinlion
of Bohemia hut this, together wilh his
submission to Ihe Germons, aroused
opposition, and in 919 he was killed
and succeeded by his brolher, Boleslnv I.
This portrail of the prime, ihe patron soinl
o' the CkcIis. was painted by a member of
rhe Czech School in ihe 16th century
▼ In the 9lh and early I Olh centuries Slavic
slates farmed in Moravia, Poland and
Bohemia. Polish and Bohemian rulers used
fortified od mini strati »e centres to dwramre
previously independent tribes. While Great
Moravia was based an large urban centres
an ihe River Moravo, slate lormation among
ihe Elbe Slavs was hold in check by the
power ol the Germon duchies, nolahrf
Saxony under Otto I.
North
Sea
It is evident from first archaeological traces of the Slavs
thru in the .Ird and 4 til centuries they lived in the 1
fertile basins of Che Vistula. Dniester, liii|* and Dnieper
rivers (map /). In the early 5th eentury. however, the
nomadic llusis conquered and drove out Germanic peoples
tu the west of this area Uxigcs 56-^57), allowing the Slavs to
move as far as the l>anul>e frontier of the Byzantine Knrpiiv
by around 500. The subsequent victories over the
Byzantines by a second noniitdlc people, the Avars (pages
76-79). meant that Slavic .groups were able to penetrate
sou theast weirds into the Balkans and even the I'clopouncsc.
At the same time Slavs also moved north and west as Avars
encroached on their territory.
As a result, most of central Europe as far west as the
Kibe was settled by Slavs - Moravia and Bohemia had been
settled by 550, and much of the Kibe region by 600. The
process can be traced archaeological!)* in the emergence
and distribution of various Slavic cultures, which arc
mainly distinguished by the pottery they produced.
In the 6th century the Slavs operated in numerous
small and independent social units of a few thousand. Some
had kings, but there were no established social hierarchies
and no hereditary nobility - merely freemen and slaves.
Slavs were particularly ready to adopt captured outsiders
as full members of their groups, and this partly explains
why they were able to Slavicizc central and eastern Europe
in such a relatively short period of time. They lived in
small, unfortified villages, grew crops and raised animals.
However, from the 7th century, hillforts - each serving
as a local centre of refuge for a small social unit - became
the characteristic form of Slavic settlement, and several
thousand have been found in central and eastern Kurope.
They subsequently merged into larger, more organized
political entities, the first of which evolved in Moravia in
the Vth century (map 2) but was swallowed up by Magyars
moving westwards from around [ JI)I) {piigen 76-77}.
KcmriMii: Tit\;ssroit\ivN<i>
After about 500 Slavic agriculture became more productive
thanks to the adoption of Roman ploughs and crop rota-
tion. This agricultural revolution was only one element in
a wider process of economic development which, archaeo-
logieally, is reflected in the wide range of specialist
manufactures, not least of silver jewellery, found on Slavic
sites. Much of the Slavs' new wealth derived from contacts
with economically more developed neighbours. Its greatest
BalUt S,
fMunsj Mordi
■ t*3Hh March
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I
OMWANIANS
2 State formation c. 800 - 1 000
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1 The spread of Slavic culture 300-660
■■ Cor« Sitrvic oea t. 30Q f era se-taUv Sbs i| 500-HX1
B traefStowrullursc 500 «-' InwsiD hy Sins t 5t0-(40
A Between around 400 and 650 Slavic -
speaking groups came la dominate much of
central and eastern Europe. Their spread in
and around ihe Cm pal hi on ■ [to c. 5511) is
mirrored in the distribution of the so-rolled
Prague Culture-. Over the next century, large
areas ol Ihe North European Plain wete
similarly colonized by Slavic peoples.
single source was the trade in slaves with the Muslim
caliphates, conducted from the Nth century onwards and
evidenced by hoards of Arab silver coins found in central
Europe (map J). Western Slavic groups and the Kits cap-
tured slaves from eastern Slav's living in the area between
their respective territories. Some slaves were sold directly
to Muslim (and some western) merchants in central
Kurope, notably in Prague, while many were shipped to the
Muslim world by Scandinavian and other "middlemen' .
These intermediaries bought slaves at the trading centres
of the south Baltic coast (such as Elhing, Wiskiauten and
(irobin) arid subsequently transported them down the river
routes of eastern Europe, particularly the Volga, which gave
direct access to the Caspian Sea and Muslim Mesopotamia.
The formation of states
The slave trade played an important rule in generating new
political structures. Traders bad to organize to procure
slaves, and this, together with the new silver wealth, made
possible new ambitions. In the first half of the 10th
century, for example. Micsco 1 established the first Polish
state with the help of his own armoured cavalry, which his
wealth enabled him to maintain. Perhaps this force was
first employed to capture slaves, but it soon took on the
role of establishing arid maintaining territorial control with
the aid of a series of hillforts. The Premyslid dynasty of
Bohemia, which originated around Prague, adopted a
similar strategy, and by around WO it controlled central
Bohemia through a network of three central and five fron-
tier hillforts- Over the following century the dynasty
extended its influence much further afield and in its newly
acquired territories it replaced existing hillforts. which had
served for local self-defence, with fortified administrative
centres in order to maintain its control.
To the east, the Rus of Kiev had by about 1000 created
the first Russian state, extending their control over other,
originally independent trading stations such as Smolensk,
N'ovgorod, Is; hor.sk and Staraia Ladoga {map 4). Each of
these trading groups consisted of a relatively small number
of original!) Scandinavian traders and a much target
number of Slavs who produced the goods, shared in the
profits - and Quickly absorbed the Scandinavians.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
4 Slavic states C
1000
S Eprscopofttt
H Djfusfcccnfroolfalond
PEC Hqk
While SlavtC state formation generally involved assert-
ing aggressive dominion, this was not always the ease.
During the Kith century the Klhe Slavs - comprising the
previously independent Ahodrites, llcvellians and Sorbs -
increasingly acted together to throw oil the domination
being exerted on them by Ottoman Saxony, which in the
middle of the century had caned up their territories into a
series of lordships or marches. However, the Elbe Slavs
reasserted their independence in a great uprising of 9N3,
The adoption ok Ciiristiamty
State formation also had a religious dimension. Fran lis and
then Ottomans, the Papacy and Byzantium were all inter-
ested in sending missionaries to the Slavic lands, most
famously in the tnid-'Jth century when ( lyril and Methodius
went, with papal Messing, from Constantinople to Moravia.
►• From the 8lh century no jr Hi of Arab
silver coins were He poured in Slavic central
and eastern Europe - evidence of Slavic
partiriprtlion in trie fu< and slave trades
conducted in the rich land; of ihe Ahbasid
Coliphate. Slavs oho traded with ihe
Prankish (arolingian world lo the west
There the brothers generated a written Slavic language to
translate the Bible and Christian service materials. In the
Hlth century litis. Polish said Bohemian leaders all adopted
Christianity. Kiev, Cmieznu and Prague, capitals of their
respective states, all became archbishoprics, Kiev and
Cntezno with their own episcopal networks.
Christiaiiization allowed ambitious Slavic dynasts to
sweep away not only the old Slavic gods but also the cults
that were unique to each independent group and so
reflected the old political order. The establishment of strong
Christian churches thus contributed significantly to the
process whereby the small, independent Slavic communi-
ties of the 6th century evolved into the new Slavic states of
central Europe in the <>th and Kith centuries.
-4 By the year 1000 three dominant
dynasties had emerged in the Slav lands at
(entrd and easlern Europe - in Uohemia,
Poland and Russia - each centred on their
respective rapitor; al Prague, Gretna and
Kiev. While closely controlling their tare
areas, these new stares also fought each
olber foe conlrol of the loads in between
[Moravia, Volhynia, Silesia, Byelorussia),
which repealedly thonged hands over
several centuries. Dynastic unity in Poland
and Russia was to collapse gradually in the
1 2th and 1 3th centuries, lending lo
partitions and the creation of less
expansions! kingdoms. At the same time
German expansion - al firsl demographic,
ihen political - was to undermine Ihe
[ Ihe western Slavic stales.
© BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE 100-500 pages 56-57 © THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-1405 pages 98-99
EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD
618-907
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▲ Hie Tang dynasty established a vast
empire - larger than any other Chinese
empire before the conquests of the Manchus
1 ,000 years later. Throughout the empire
Buddhism flourished, and Chinese pilgrims
travelled along the trade routes of the Silk
Rood - firmly under Tang control between
the mid-7th and mid-8th centuries - to visit
stopas and shrines in India. The expansion
of the Tang was finally halted in 751 when
two major defeats were inflicted on their
armies - by the kingdom of Nanzhao at
the Battle of Dali and by the Muslim Arabs
at the Battle of Tolas River. This last battle
resulted in the Abbasid Empire gaining
control of the area west of the Pamirs and
established the boundary between the
civilizations of Islam and China.
T The central administration controlled
every province, using regular censuses to
gather information about the available
resources and population. (In 754 there
were nearly 53 million people living in over
300 prefectures.) A network of canals linked
the Yangtze Valley with areas to the north,
supplying the huge army that defended the
long imperial borders.
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Following the collapse of the Han Empire in AD 220
China was divided into the three competing kingdoms
of Shu, Wei and Wu. A brief period of unity was pro-
vided by the rule of the Western Jin between 265 and 316
before northern China fell under the control of non-
Chinese chiefs, leaving the south in the hands of an elitist
aristocracy. The country was reunited under the Sui
dynasty - established in 581 - but the dynasty was short-
lived. In 618, after four centuries of division and turmoil,
the Tang dynasty took control (map 1).
The influence of Tang China was to be felt throughout
Asia in the three centuries that followed. Its political sta-
bility and economic expansion led to the unprecedented
development of links with many peoples throughout East
and Central Asia, and these fostered a cultural renaissance
and cosmopolitanism in China itself. Tang armies brought
the trade routes of the Silk Road under Chinese control,
with protectorates established as far west as Ferghana and
Samarqand. In the middle of the 7th century, the Chinese
Empire reached its maximum extent prior to the Manchu
conquests a thousand years later. For a hundred years Tang
armies were not seriously challenged, and Tang models of
government were taken up by many neighbouring peoples
- who in turn expanded their own spheres of influence.
These included the kingdom of Nanzhao in the southwest,
Bohai in the northeast, Silla in Korea and the early
Japanese state centred on Heijo.
The Tang system of centralized government (map 2)
was introduced by the second Tang emperor, Tai Zong
(r. 626-649), and was supported by a professional bureau-
cracy of civil servants. The cities were linked to the
countryside through a well-developed infrastructure of
canals and roads. New agricultural land was opened up,
especially in the south, and in the first part of the Tang
period peasants owned their own land, paying for it in taxes
and labour. Later on, however, as central power waned,
wealthy and powerful landowners extended their area of
control. Rural prosperity supported the growth of new
industries, notably the production of fine pottery and
luxury goods that were often inspired by fashionable
foreign items.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
3 Korea c. 600
iBoumdory oF kingdom ar
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empire r_ e-DC
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▲ Lavishly furnished tombs, often adorned
with fine paintings, housed the remains of
the elite in Korean society, while the
majority had simpler burials. Among the
grave offerings were exquisite gold crowns
and other jewellery made of gold foil and
wire. Fine stoneware pottery made in the
kingdom of Kaya was exported to Japan.
The Korean Peninsula
In the Korean Peninsula, Tang armies assisted the kingdom
of Silla (map 3), which in its campaign of expansion had
crushed Paekche in 660. The defeat of Koguryo in 668
marked the beginning of the unification of Korea. To the
northeast the state of Bohai was established by Tae Gho-
yong, a general from Koguryo who refused to surrender to
Silla, and in 721 a wall was built to separate the two states
(map 4). Silla finally compelled the Chinese to abandon
their territorial claims in Korea in 735, but all through this
period maintained good relations with the Chinese: Korean
scholars, courtiers and Buddhist monks made frequent
journeys to China, and Korean trading communities were
established in eastern China. Many individual Koreans
played important roles in the Tang Empire. In 747 a
Chinese army was led to the upper ranges of the Indus by
Ko Son-ji, a Korean military official.
The role of Buddhism
Not only the Chinese and Koreans, but also the Japanese,
were brought together by the spread of Buddhism from
India throughout East Asia. Buddhism often received offi-
cial support and many of the most spectacular Buddhist
monuments in Asia were built at this time, from the cave
temples at Dunhuang in China to the Horyuji and Todaiji
temples in Nara in Japan. The Silla capital at Kumsong
(modern Kyongju), which already boasted fine monuments
such as the Ch'omsongdae observatory, was further embell-
ished with great Buddhist structures including the
Pulguk-sa temple (c. 682). However, the relationship
between this new religion and the government was not
always easy: in 845 Emperor Wu Zong ordered the closure
of nearly 45,000 monasteries and temples throughout
China in an attempt to restrict the influence of Buddhism.
Developments in Japan
On the Japanese archipelago a centralized bureaucratic
government developed from a series of successive capitals
in the Kinai region. In 710 the new capital at Heijo, near
the present city of Nara, was designed by Emperor
Gemmyo following Chinese principles of city planning. The
\
I
[
4 Korea and Japan 750-900
EtounilflfY of kingdom a empire l 750
a Capiral
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Provincial border in Japan' c. 800
• BhiiiiD shrine
I Kinai region
A Hcly mountain
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subsequent Nara period saw major political, economic and
land reforms as well as campaigns against the Emishi and
Ezo peoples who lived north of the boundaries of the
expanding Japanese state. In 794 the capital was moved to
Heian (now Kyoto), ushering in the golden age of Heian
civilization during which a sophisticated courtly lifestyle
developed among the elite classes. In the later part of the
Heian period (794-1185) the samurai culture, which
placed great value on military prowess, also evolved.
The decline of Tang power
The 9th century saw the waning of Tang influence and an
ever-increasing independence in surrounding countries
(map 1). In 751 Tang armies suffered two major defeats: at
the Battle of Dali in the south, over 60,000 Tang soldiers
perished at the hands of the troops of the kingdom of
Nanzhao; in the west, Arabs took control of much of
Central Asia in the Battle of the Talas River, which set the
border between the Chinese and Abbasid empires.
The faltering of the Tang dynasty was symbolized by the
rebellion of An Lushan, the commander of the northeastern
armies, who gained great influence over Emperor Xuan
Zong (r. 712-56) through the imperial concubine Yang
Yuhuan. In 755 An Lushan rebelled against the emperor and
led a force of over 100,000 men on the capital. Although the
rebellion was eventually put down, the empire was greatly
weakened and became vulnerable to external attacks. In
787 the Tibetans sacked the capital Chang'an, and in 791
defeated Chinese and Uighur forces near Beshbaliq, ending
Chinese domination of Central Asia. As central control
weakened and provinces became more powerful, China
once again moved towards disintegration. Following more
revolts, the last Tang emperor was deposed in 907.
China's relations with surrounding countries changed as
these countries themselves changed. The last Japanese
embassies were sent to China in 838, and in 894 the
Japanese government, now dominated by the Fujiwara clan,
officially banned travel to China. In the Korean Peninsula
serious rebellions broke out in Silla in 889, and out of these
rebellions was born the kingdom of Koryo, centred in the
north, which was to control all of Korea from 936.
▲ Buddhism rapidly gained popularity in
Japan following its introduction from Korea
in the 6th century, but traditional Japanese
Shinto religion was actively encouraged by
7th- and 8th-century rulers. The two creeds
were brought together in the Tendai
teachings of Saicho after the capital was
moved from Heijo to Heian in 794, and the
strong links between religion and
government were subsequently severed.
A The long-established East Asian tradition
of erecting lifesize stone terracotta guardian
figures on and around tombs reached its
apogee in the three-coloured glazed statues
© FIRST EMPIRES IN CHINA 1100 bc-ad 220 pages 48-49 O EAST ASIA 907-1600 pages 86-87
FRANKISH KINGDOMS
200-900
T Royal tours were a crucial element of
(arolingian governmental control. As a
younger man, Charlemagne averaged
29 kilometres (1 8 miles) a day and stayed
regularly in all parts of his kingdom,
thus enabling him to keep his local
representatives in line. Also performing
this function were teams of inspectors
(imss/1, each usually comprising a layman
and a prominent ecclesiastic. Charlemagne's
grandson, Charles the Bald (r. 843-77),
later evolved clearly designated areas of
inspection [missatka) in the north.
The Franks were created by the reorganization of a
number of Germanic groups on the northern Rhine
frontier of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century ad.
They comprised several subgroups, most prominently the
Salians and Ripuarians, which were further divided into
warbands, each with their own king. The collapse of the
Roman Empire after about 450 prompted further changes,
with Ghilderic (d. 482) and his son Glovis (r. 482-511),
uniting increasing numbers of Franks under their rule.
The two men belonged to a prominent Salian family -
called the Merovingians after a legendary founder Merovech
- but their careers turned the family into a royal dynasty
for all Frankish peoples. At the same time, the newly united
Franks were able to conquer more and more territory:
Ghilderic started by taking over the Roman province of
Belgica II, to which Glovis added the region around Paris
(the kingdom of Aegidius and Syagrius), Alemannia and
Aquitaine. Glovis's sons and grandsons further conquered
Provence, Burgundy and Thuringian territory (map 1).
The Franks did not, however, evolve governmental
structures of sufficient strength to hold this large new state
together. The conquests had generated renewable wealth for
kings to reward local landowners and hence attract their
support, but when the conquests petered out kings had to
buy support using their own landed resources, so that great
men became wealthier at the expense of kings. By around
700 the real power had passed to a relatively small number
of families in each of the regions of the kingdom: Austrasia,
Neustria, Burgundy, Aquitaine and Provence (map 2).
In the 8th century the rulers of Austrasia in the north-
east - called the Carolingian dynasty - reunited the whole
Frankish world. Between about 695 and 805 their armies
■'. Soiicv,
KINGDOM Of 'V
,,,,„. AKIHys AND ..AUMANNI
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1 The growth of Frankish kingdoms
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A Hie collapse of Roman power in northern
Gaul after about 450 facilitated the
unification of the Franks and the extension
of their dominion. The Romans had kept the
tribes divided and weak, but Merovingian
leaders Childeric and Clovis eliminated rival
Frankish warlords to create a new dominant
force in post-Roman western Europe.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
were on campaign for all but five years, taking advantage of
an open frontier to the east. As a result, Austrasia's rulers
could offer ongoing rewards to would-be supporters and thus
outbid noble rivals from the other regions. In three genera-
tions - Charles Martel (d. 741), Pippin the Short (r. 741-
68) and Charlemagne (r. 768-814) - the dynasty reunited
Francia and conquered Lombard Italy, Saxony, Alemannia,
Thuringia, Bavaria and the Avars (map 3). On Christmas
Day 800 Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome.
The structure of government
The Merovingians based their rule on the existing Roman
structures: the cities, or civitates, and their dependent ter-
ritories. However, by about 800 the civitates had ceased to
exist, and in their place was a patchwork of smaller coun-
ties. It was thus much easier to create continuous territories
when the kingdom was divided, as between Charlemagne's
grandsons in the Treaty of Verdun in 843.
The main governmental problem remained constant:
how to exercise centralized control over a very large
kingdom in an era of primitive communications. Powerful
landowners were essential to a king's rule, but they had to
be prevented from becoming too independent; continual
royal travel was a central part of the strategy.
Royal finance still relied on conquest. Once expansion
petered out after the conquest of Saxony (805), and espe-
cially when Louis the Pious (d. 840) was succeeded by a
great number of quarrelling sons, Merovingian patterns
reasserted themselves. Financial resources, above all land,
were transferred by rival members of the dynasty in a bid
to buy supporters. By 900 Carolingian power in West
Francia was confined to the Paris region, while East Francia
was run by non-Carolingians from 911 (pages 92—93).
The Carolingian Renaissance
Under Charlemagne determined efforts were made to revive
Classical learning. Texts were gathered and copied, and the
teaching of good Latin was made a priority in royally spon-
sored monasteries and cathedrals with scriptoria or writing
offices (map 3). This Carolingian Renaissance was generated
by the work of a relatively small number of institutions, and
its central thrust was religious. Carolingian monks copied
Classical texts because their language and contents were
considered necessary for a full understanding of the Bible.
Editing variant texts of the Bible to produce one orthodox
version, codifying divergent sources of church law, provid-
ing service books in good Latin: all of these were basic tasks
Charlemagne wanted his scholars to undertake. Charle-
magne also wished - as he proclaimed in the Admonitio
Generalis of 789 and the Programmatic Capitulary of 802 -
to ensure higher standards of Christian religious observance
and biblically guided morality in his realm. His bishops
attempted to enforce this programme through a sequence of
reforming councils designed to harmonize standards
throughout the empire. Louis the Pious did the same with
monastic practice through further councils between 817 and
819. The Papacy likewise received strong royal support, and
was endowed with the lands which would form the basis of
the papal state through to the 19th century.
The Frankish economy
By around 600 the Merovingians had presided over the col-
lapse of most of the more sophisticated elements of the
Roman economy: taxation, substantial long-distance trade,
towns, specialized manufacture and coins (apart from a very
high-value gold coinage that was useless for everyday trans-
actions). There were also associated declines in population
and agricultural production. The 7th and 8th centuries,
however, witnessed substantial recovery. New trading routes
spread across the Channel and North Sea, their progress
marked by the appearance of a series of trading stations or
emporia (map 4). Monetary-based exchange also increased
- using, from the later 7th century, a lower value silver cur-
rency. The quantity and quality of silver coins grew
dramatically with the new coinage introduced by
Ajrtorfcocll
. ,. ! .A.SI
Augsburg ft tafrgaing ■--
rVtmrboch^
u*tarii.H-*T S r^fbocht ^faiehmou # * Monte
Bourgos
Bay uf
Biscay
? y ♦*2 sw " e °" s, ™ ,c " t3 ' 0oij \ \Z7*
s
On*
Manza &
■■•*"?
MuihtLrruuam
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i_^L
Charlemagne in the 790s - a coinage that Charles the Bald
later managed to his own profit; a dense network of mints
allowed him periodically to change coin types, demand that
people use new coins, and charge them fees for reminting.
Carolingian achievements
Politically the Carolingian period ended in failure. The
united western European empire could not be held together,
even if Charlemagne's resumption of an imperial title would
directly inspire his Holy Roman successors (pages 90-91).
In economic and cultural terms, however, the Carolingian
period was deeply formative. Trade, a monetarized economy
and more specialized production all began to flourish, pro-
viding the essential backdrop to the "take-off" of the
western European economy which followed in the 11th
century and after (pages 100-1). Carolingian scholars also
set new standards in Christian belief, practice and intellec-
tual development, with Latin Christendom growing from the
seeds planted by Charlemagne.
-r
T
4 The stu-century Prankish economy
1 j [hnnnel or farft Sod ompwiuni.
& Mid 9ih-Esnlurv mint
SS 9rti -tenhiry marker
) ' Wolcheren/ 6*v_V£mBlt
"™*Q 5«d*4? |^lr VArn^' \
r3FC.Jp
A, s >3'
-HT
▲ Carolingian scholars developed a new,
easily written script - the Carolingian
miniscule - which greatly speeded up the
tedious process of book copying. They also
revived Classical Latin from Classical texts,
making it the language of medieval
learning. Their strict choices helped define
the limits of modern knowledge: they
ignored texts whose contents they
considered unnecessary or inappropriate for
Latin Christendom, and consequently these
works have (ailed to come down to us in the
modern world.
-4 In the 7th and 8th centuries the
Frankish economy recovered well from its
Merovingian decline. Sea trading links
flourished to the north and new centres
of trade were established. Louis the Pious
(r. 81 4-40), Charlemagne's only surviving
son, ordered that there should be a market
in every county, and they feature widely in
the charters of Charles the Bald. The
Carolingian period thus witnessed
substantial moves away from locally focused
subsistence agricultural economies towards
greater specialization and exchange.
© THE ROMAN EMPIRE 500 BC-AD 400 pages 54-55 © THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 962-1356 pages 90-91
PEOPLES OF THE EUROPEAN STEPPE
350-1000
► By the mid-440s the Hunnic Empire
dominated large numbers of Germanic
groups in the niiddls Danube legion and
exercised a loose hold aver large I roil: ol
eostern and north -centro! Europe. The
military success of the empire is evident
from the large number of rich burials thot
have been found, particularly in the middle
Danube region, which date from the Hunnir
period. Same of these burials may have
been of Huns, hut many clearly belongs:' lo
the Germanic dynosts who first profited
horn the empire and subsequently led the
independence movements which destroyed it
after tk death of Mo in 4SJ.
BaitieSea
T In the SaDs the Avars established
themselves in the area of modem Hungary
and far the next 70 years raided territories
from the thine ta Constantinople. They
nearly conquered Constantinople in 626 but
in doing sa suffered a defeat which greatly
reduced their offensive military potential.
While this allowed the defection of many of
their subjects, they remained a dominant
power in central Europe until being deleoled
by Charlemagne in 796.
i
1 HUNNIC CAMPAIGNS IN THE STH CENTURY
_J Hfcm tori am
'-■-.(. :' ~. ■ . '.-':'" . ;' -■
— ►- Huinlt!
RUG Sohject-gioup wlhm the Humit [npe
BH '■■'■'J'i BJ BUH f R^H Jtj
V
fBfloroum
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s i a
At the western end of the immense grasslands that
run between China and Kit rope is the Volga and
Ukrainian steppe, while further west are two regions
of Europe that in soil and climate can be regarded as con-
tinuations of the steppe, the Liohrudja in modern Romania
and the Great Hungarian Plain. In the 1st millennium AD
the rich grazing lands of this area attracted successive
waves of Asian nomads and semi-nomads who were from a
variety of ethnic backgrounds and supported themselves
by raising animals that were moved annually between
upland summer tend lowland winter pastures.
Among the most important of these westward-moving
peoples were the Huns (from c. .ISO), whose ethnic affilia-
tion is unknown, and the Turkic-speaking Avars (from
around 560). In the latter half of the 6th century they were
followed by further groups from the confederation of the
so-called Western Turks (the Bulgars, Khazars and the
Finno-Ugrian-speaking Magyars), and in the 9th century by
independent Turkic -speaking groups, the Peehenegs and
the Oguz. As more nomads moved onto the steppe, they
drove the earlier arrivals further west and towards the
lands around the Mediterranean - lands whose relative
wealth could be tapped through raids and more sustained
military campaigns, or through the extraction of annual
tributes. In 395, for example, the Huns, who at this point
were settled in the Ukrainian steppe, raided both the
Roman and Persian empires (ptiges 56-57), and by the
410s they were established on the Great Hungarian Plain,
supplying mercenaries to the Roman state. In the 440s,
after a sequence of highly destructive campaigns, their
feared leader Attila was receiving *)()() kilograms (2,000
pounds) of gold a year in tributes. The Avars later mounted
a series of campaigns against the Byzantines, particularly
in the 5H0s, and extracted a steadily increasing tribute. In
the KHh century the Magyars terrorized Europe with raids
from the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean coast of France.
The buitjhnc of kmpiiies
The steppe peoples not only raided the empires of other
peoples but also built empires of their own, either on the
steppe or within Europe, On the Great Hungarian Plata the
Huns established a powerful and aggressive empire between
about 410 and 469 (mop I), They were succeeded by the
Avars, who moved west from the Ukrainian steppe in
around 560 to escape the Western Turks and established
an empire that was to last until 796 (rtmp 2).
Centred around the ruling elan of the Asina, the
Western Turks built a huge empire stretching from the
borders of China to the Ukrainian steppe, but it bad col-
lapsed by the 630s. During the following 40 years three of
its constituent parts - the Bulgars, Khazars and Magyars -
established longer-lived entities in the Dobrudja, Volga and
Ukrainian steppe respectively. These empires remained rel-
atively stable for uver 200 vears, until in the late 9th and
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
32zzz::
3 THE WESTERN STEPPE t 895
AUG lnrwnl pespis
RUS
Sertied peoak
&#i
(ore tenftoey of main nflrtrf crcup
— »-
Movemair of Maggots
— »-
tfwemeu of P«kflegs
■
(tan ton
■
Mfioja *tn'te slow fortress
early 10th centuries the Pechenegs moved west, expelling
the Magyars and undermining Khazar power (map 3). The
Pechenegs themselves would later fall victim to the Seljuk
Turks, a dynasty who were to emerge from the Oguz in the
11th century (pages 88-89).
All these shifting empires were based on the conquest
and exploitation of subject tribes, who were usually a
mixture of nomadic peoples and more settled agricultural
groups. Attila's Hunnic Empire of the 440s consisted of a
dominant Hunnic core but with numerous, particularly
Germanic, groups such as Goths, Gepids, Herules, Rugians,
Sueves and Lombards. The Avar Empire of the later 6th
century incorporated Gepids, Bulgars and numerous Slavic
groups, and the Bulgar state in the Dobrudja and sur-
rounding territories also incorporated many Slavic tribes.
The Khazars on the Volga steppe exercised dominion over
the nomadic Magyars before they established their own
empire in the Ukraine, as well as over large Slavic and later
Scandinavian Rus groups to the north.
Once they had achieved some degree of dominance,
peoples of the steppe tended to cease being simple nomads
and profound social evolution sometimes followed. For
example, when the Huns first reached the Ukrainian steppe
around 375, they were led in their continual search for new
pastures by a multiplicity of chiefs. By the 430s, however,
one dominant dynasty, that of Attila, had emerged, sup-
pressing all rivals. With warfare dominating their lives, the
Huns were able to use the wealth of the Roman Empire to
create a new, more stratified social hierarchy under a
single ruler.
The impact of the nomads on Europe
The nature of these nomad empires explains much of their
impact on Europe. Built on military dominance, they
required continued military success to survive. In their
campaigns they used soldiers and leaders recruited from
the peoples they dominated, and their successes were to
some extent shared with these peoples. A successful cam-
paign both maintained a leader's prestige and provided
booty to be distributed - not only among the nomad core
but also to selected leaders among subject groups, whose
loyalty was thus maintained. The campaigns led to a sub-
stantial degree of instability in Europe, as groups escaping
from the intruders sought new homes. The collapse of the
Western Roman Empire in the 5th century was brought
about by Germanic groups escaping the Huns, and Avar
pressure later led to a great migration of Slavs into central
and eastern Europe and Lombards into Italy.
Warfare, however, could not be successful forever. The
Europeans eventually learned how to contain the steppe
peoples, for whom the logistic problems of continuous
warfare increased as closer targets were conquered. Once
expansion stopped, decline quickly followed. Within 16
years of Attila's death in 453, the Huns had ceased to exist
as an independent force in Europe. Without booty to
distribute or prestige to inspire fear, Attila's sons lost control
of the subject peoples. Similarly, when defeat by
Constantinople had curbed the power of the Avars in the
7th century, numerous Slavs and Bulgars escaped from the
Avar Empire. Long-term survival was only possible for
steppe peoples by adopting the lives of sedentary land-
owners and embracing mainstream European culture, as the
Magyars did after being defeated by the Saxons at the Battle
of Lechfeld in 955 (map 4).
▲ In the 9th century the Khazars played a
dominant role in trade throughout the
Ukrainian steppe with both the Bulgars and
Magyars. Directly or indirectly, their
hegemony also extended to the Slavic and
Rus groups of the neighbouring forested
zone to the north.
T Driven into the heart of the continent by
the arrival of the Pechenegs on the
Ukrainian steppe around 895, the Magyars
in turn terrorized central, southern and
even parrs of western Europe with
widespread raids. Their expansion was
first curbed in 936 and then halted in 955
by the newly powerful Saxon kings Henry I
and his son Otto I.
© FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: EUROPE 8000-200 bc pages 20-21 O THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-1405 pages 98-99
THE VIKINGS
800-1100
•* Viking raiders ranged widely, ceoming
lite coast of Holy. So, too, did Viking traders,
exchanging goods at towns in western
Europe and following the river routes ol
western Russia to sefl furs and slaves as for
away os Baghdad. Both traders and raiders
used the new snip technology to create new
ways ol molting money oul of the wealth of
the great [oroliogion ond Jbbosid empires.
► Hew ship leehncJogy, combining ihe use
of sail power with a strong bul flexible hull
which could survive ihe import ol ocean
waves, made extraordinary voyages of
exploration possible far iKe adventurous
Vikings. In 9B6 njarni Herjorfsson reached
North Amerka after being blown ofl course
during o voyage from Iceland lo Greenland.
His discoveries along rfte (oasts of
Hewfaundland and Labrador were followed
up by Leil Etnksson who in about 1 003
sailed Irom Greenland in order lo follow
HerjrJfsson \ route in reverse.
A this Viking silver drogonbeodtd omule!
comes from Iceland, wfiicti was (okmried by
the Vikings in the lale 9tfi century. Its crass
shape may well hove a Christian
connotation: the inhabitants ol Iceland -
logelher with those ol Denmark, Norway
and Sweden - were converted lo Christianity
in the lale lOlh and early 3 Ith cenluries
The Vikings first crime to the attention of other
Euroj>eatis when, at the end erf the Nth century, they
sailed from [heir Scandinavian homeland to launch a
scries of feme i oils raids on the coasts of Britain, Ireland and
France. However, in the 30(1 years that followed they not
only plundered in western Europe line also embarked on
voyages of exploration, established a far-reaching network of
trading routes and created new states. During these years the
term "Viking" was applied only to those who undertook
expeditions of plunder, but it has since conic to be used
more widely to refer to all the inhabitants of Norway,
Denmark and Sweden at that time.
Voyages of exploration
In the late Nth century Norwegians sailed to the Shetland*
and ( )rkneys, drawn across the North Sea by the prevailing
winds and currents. This was a shorter journey than coasting
round Scandinavia and led naturally on to the northern
coast of Scotland, the Hebrides. Ireland and western Britain
(itiflij J). The Norwegians then ranged further afield and
reached the Faroes in the early 9th century and Iceland,
another 1,600 kilometres (1,000 miles) northwest, in the
860s and 870s. Greenland was first visited in about WO.
when the Norwegian Gunnbjom was blown off course.
Settlement there began in the late 10th century, bringing
further explorers, such as Kink the Heel, who surveyed much
of the new land. According to a 12th-century saga, it was
during a voyage to Greenland in 986 that Bjarni llerjolfsson
was storm-driven south to reach the shores of North
America, He made three landfalls, one of which is thought to
coincide with the site of a permanent Norwegian settlement
dating from around KKH) near L'Ansc aux Meadows, on the
northern tip of Newfoundland, llerjolfsson was followed by
other voyagers, notably Leif F.iriksson (in 1003) and his
brother Thorvald (between 1005 and 1(11 2).
Trading ami iluium.
Most Vikings sailed in search of profit, whether as traders or
raiders. They exchanged goods at trading centres (emporia)
in northern Europe and followed the river routes of western
Knssin - ehiel'K die Volga route m the Caspian rn g:iin
access to the rich Muslim world (mrrn 2). between the later
8th and 10th centuries the natural resources of the north -
particularly furs but also honey, wax, falcons, walrus ivory
and large numbers of slaves - were exchanged for Arab silver,
mostly at a great emporium in the land of the Volga Bulgars
(pages 76-77), During the 9th century Norwegians and
Danes also moved west, taking slaves from Ireland and
Scotland via new trading settlements at Dublin and York.
Commerce and plundering were linked: slaves were
usually captured in raids and the trading centres became a
natural target for raiders. Exploiting many of the established
trading routes, Norwegians raided northern Britain from 7%.
and Danes quickly followed suit, moving along the Channel
to attack southern K^ngland and northern France. Merchants
were forced to pay protection money and many of the old
emporia (especially Quentovie. Dorcstad and Hamwic) were
repeatedly sacked In the 840s and SfsOs settlements airing
the western coasts of France and Spain, and along the
Mediterranean coast as far as Italy, were also raided.
/
■
Crkilod..
fc O*fccd
Waltingbrd
W ■• - • • • SauHmaHi •„ .
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* ^Soultiompton • _
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Chidietfer
4 Conquest and settlement
892-
-911
■
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▲ Alfred's newly constructed fortresses
(the burns) protected his kingdom from the
second Great Army of 892-95. Many of its
frustrated contingents then returned to the
continent, creating chaos in Brittany and,
under King Rollo, eventually being granted
land to found the Duchy of Normandy at
the mouth of the Seine in 911.
Sea
***•*
*\
3 Conquest and settlement 86S-9?
• Gretf An if ko» in In* K Wi
• Orect bmv base in ccrtusrol Europe 479-?!
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Conquest and settlement
A totally new level of activity unfolded in western Europe
from the 860s with the arrival of the "Great Armies", inde-
pendent (mostly Danish) groups led by their own kings but
often totalling several thousand men and now enabling
Vikings to settle in previously inpenetrable areas south of
Scotland. The first Great Army landed in England in 865 and
within five years had subdued Northumbria, Mercia and East
Anglia. The next seven years saw a series of assaults on the
one surviving kingdom, Wessex, which under Alfred the
Great successfully resisted and defeated the Viking Guthrum
at Edington in 878. The Vikings were given territory north
of the River Thames, and this was formally established as
Danelaw (map 3). Dissatisfied with this arrangement, some
Vikings turned to continental Europe, and for 13 years
(879-92) battles raged along the rivers of northern France,
even reaching Paris. Following a serious defeat on the River
Dyle the remaining Vikings returned to England in 892, but
this time Alfred fended them off with ease (map 4).
Siinh
Sea
5 Thf kingdom of Denmark
in the } 1th centurv
?.-:.:■""■■:: IJHJMiHtii
m Eegonol adnmsirusiffl centre
Q Bishopric
rj Foflifacitai
— Mir!
Baltic
St a
4
HOLSTEIN
TlIK PflHMATIIIrY OK STATES
Danelaw never constituted a unified state, and when the
Vikings no longer arrived in large numbers after 900 the
Wessex monarchy swallowed up their territories to create
the first united kingdom of England. Hy contrast. King Rollo's
settlement in France eventually emerged as the independent
Duchy of Normandy, and Viking trading stations in western
Russia coalesced Into a state in the 10th century (pages
70-71}. However, the main forum of Viking state formation
was Scandinavia itself. In about S00 no unified kingdoms
existed there, but by around 1000 a dynasty with its capital
at Jelling, led by Hvein Forkbeard and his son Cnuc, had
established control over all of Denmark, Having suppressed
their rivals they built fortresses, set up regional administra-
tive centres, created the first native Scandinavian coinage
and - because Svetn and ( amt were also Christians - estab-
lished a number of bishoprics (map 5).
Similar processes began in Norway in the 990s. when
Olaf Tryggvassoii. returning from extensive raiding in
England as a rich man and a convert to Christianity, founded
the Norwegian monarchy. The entity he created was far from
stable, however, and .Sweden also remained politically frag-
mented. Thus when Sveui and taint gathered forces for the
conquest of England ( 10O.1-17) they were joined not only by
Danes hut also by numerous independent groups from across
Scandinavia. Cnut became a strong ruler of England, but his
hold on Denmark and Norway was weak, and on his death
in 10.15 his empire disintegrated Within 50 years the
Vikings had been driven out of England by the Normans, and
hy the 12th century [hey were no longer a force to lie feared
outside the shores of Scandinavia .
A Numbering severol thousand men, the
"Great limits" whkft started to tolled in
western Europe horn about 865 marked a
new era in Viking expansion. Mainly Danish
they were large enough to conquer and
utile whole Anglo-Sown kingdoms and -
when rherked by Aided the Great al Wessex
in 9? 8 - to cause similar disruption on the
Continent by exploiting the major river
systems of Fiance and the Low Countries.
▲ By around 1000 the Jelling dynasty had
created the first Danish kingdom. It reduced
local autonomy and created new political
structures, allowing it to exploit both human
and other resources of Jutland and its
neighbouring islands.
► Even la the modern eye the Viking
kingships are impressive. The 9th-cenlury,
1 6-sealer tokslod ship, recovered by a
Norwegian excavation, is 23 S metres (just
over 76 feel I long, clinker-planked with thin
oak attached by a combination ol lashings
and small iron plates to 1 9 frames buih up
from a huge keel. An Atlantic crossing o(
1 893 in a replica of this ship - mode in just
26 days horn Bergen to Newfoundland -
demonstrated the timeless efficiency of the
design. It was, however, normally only used
for coastal sailing; the broader and deeper
halfship was considered mare suitable for
long-distance ocean crossings.
© FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: EUROPE 8000-200 bc pages 20-21 O EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7
STATES AND TRADE IN WEST AFRICA
500-1500
*■ By 1500 g up nl 1 1- 1 il rival stales
had emerged in West Africa, each
governed by an elile whose wealth
and power ion be judged from their
substantial lams, their rich burials
and the fine worts of traltsmooship
created fot them.
1 States in West Africa 500- 1 500
JpprowirKiiB griBfir of arnplici of SwigJiof 1. 1 5DD
Apprawnata am wlhin wMi mplre
ftpfnatmnla Html of wiftra of Ghana 1 1 050
of fl onem-torno dovekiped in
ftnpulmait edm" of snpiifl of Mall
rt» 9ih-Hlh (flfrtuw
in The 1 Mi tentury
OYO
faftrflfctl
tiopic of Cancer
▼ The various vegetation zones of Wesl
Airicu supported different agricultural
regimes and produced different raw
resources - such as gold from Ihe vnamn
and foresl, and soil from the desert. This
diversity in lurn helped stimulate the
development ol interregional trade.
Early West African states look a number of forms,
varying in size from the vast Songhay Empire, which
held in its sway many different ethnic groups, to
smaller, more ethnically homogeneous ttausa city-states
such as Kano (map 7), Methods of government, too, were
equally varied: the great medieval empires of the savanna
and semi-desert Sahel regions employed often complex
bureaucracies utilizing Muslim officials and the Arabic
script, while in the forested region of the south, different
systems existed which attached varying importance to the
*t -
j-\ -V .« n IK
2 Vegftmioh vm\ in Wist Aiwa
Q Hem (Sohn) IfnAud rutax tr tones t> tdmal
ZlSarnteatMiil) mt arte § m*t Q we
^ Sowra end wmSetf psskirid rf onus ® k^i.pt Q corron
I fcoJMmillilwMrtdBHI K tnras. yems
—
role of king. Among the [gbo in the Niger delta, for
example, there was no king and loyalty to the state was
maintained through religious ties, ceremonies and clans.
Trade and the eiirmatioiv of states
Trade was intimately linked with the growth of states in
West Africa, initially local and interregional in focus but
later developing into long-distance trade across the Sahara.
Trade flourished partly because of the existence of different
environmental zones that stretched east-west across the
continent and comprised the Sahara Desert, the Sahelian
semi-desert, the Sudannie isavanna and wooded grasslands,
and finally the more heavily wooded region merging into the
rainforest {map 2), The forms of agriculture practised varied
between zones: for example, the yams cultivated in the
southern wooded region could not be grown in the Sahelian
or Saharan zones, whereas pastoraiism or animal herding
was viable in the .Sahel . This variation resulted in a need to
exchange commodities, often carried out by merchants
from the Sahel or savanna regions (map J).
Prosperity generated through trade, coupled with the
growth nf settlements a [ important trade centres, gradually
led to urbanization and the foundation of states. Recent
excavations have shown that the settlement of Jcnne-jeno in
Mali, the earliest town yet found in West Africa, was founded
in about 300 lit: and had developed into a thriving town by
AD 500. Although .lenne-jeno never grew into a state, it
served as a centre of trade where savanna commodities such
as gold, iron and variuus foodstuffs were traded for Saharan
salt and possibly - though this is less certain - for copper.
Another town founded in Mali by the 7th century was
Gao, later to become the capital of the Songhay Empire. To
the west, in Mauritania, the capital of the empire of Ghana
also appears to have been in existence by this time, though
only pan of the settlement - the merchants' town of Kourulii
Saleh - has so far been found. While Ghana was in all prob-
ability the first of the states founded in West Africa, events
were also proceeding rapidly to the east of this area on the
margins of Lake Chad. The kingdom of Kanem, east of the
lake, was mentioned in an Arab document in the mid- ( Jth
teusfamrc /J
- - -~ — ^t
JV
m
;,**" M f d i I t r r <, » „ a a^^ct"
S ° «•■ o / *
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^gurr^
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A.yW» \\
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Aziikti
to renJrn/ 5odon
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,.""•
3 Principal trade commodities and trade souns 800-1500
traded goods. • foodstuffo 9 <eriinna toderixjte
A sdi ^ Am B paper ]] GoMsouts
90W 9 nary O gfaj | I Mopbfctfpfltaftn
# toloiwfc © mriBshels St copper | Copper wte
# tlorti H brass ff horas A Majoi^tmKl
# bead* ^ weapons — *■ Direction dl tode a Mop soft swra
f// * ■ ■■■ • i - :
century and had certainly been in existence for some time
before that. Later, apparently in the 14th century, this state
shifted west of Lake Chad to Borno and became known as
Kanem-Borno.
The forest regions, with their higher density of popula-
tion than the savanna or Sahel regions, were a source of
slaves, and states began to emerge in this area around the
12th century. Trade appears to have been linked with the
growth of the Akan states in modern Ghana, an area rich in
gold where trade centres such as Begho were founded
perhaps as early as the 12th century. To the northeast the
seven Hausa city-states, the Hausa Bakwai, were established
during the 13th century. Together with a further seven
related but non-Hausa states to the south, these formed a
link in the 15th century between Kanem-Borno to the east
and the Songhay Empire and the Akan states to the west.
The forest kingdoms also emerged comparatively early,
with Benin (now famous on account of its bronze sculp-
tures), occupied by the 13th century. Similar castings,
predating those of Benin, were produced in Ife, birthplace of
the Yoruba nation - a state with a well-developed tradition
of forest farming, town living, crafts and government.
Contacts with the Muslim world
Indirect trans-Saharan trade is known to have occurred
during the 1st millennium BC, but it is unlikely that cara-
vans travelled right across the desert until the introduction
of camels towards the end of that period. Archaeological evi-
dence indicates that trans-Saharan trade became far more
important with the consolidation of Islam in North Africa
from the early 9th century ad, and from this time it had a
major economic and social impact on the developing states
of sub-Saharan Africa.
There was a great demand in the Muslim world for West
African products, particularly gold, slaves and ivory. Among
the items sent south in return were manufactured goods
such as cloth, glazed pottery, glass vessels, beads, paper,
brass and cowrie shells (later used as currency). Transport
was by camel caravans, which travelled from well to well to
the Sahelian trade centres of Koumbi Saleh, Tegdaoust and
Gao. From there some of the goods were traded on further
into West Africa - indicated, for example, by the discovery
of many thousands of 9th-century coloured glass beads at
the site of Igbo-Ukwu in the southern forest zone.
Through contacts with Muslim merchants, the Sahelian
trade centres were exposed to Islam from the very begin-
nings of trans-Saharan trade with Muslim North Africa.
Various local rulers of the empires of Ghana, Kanem-Borno,
Mali and Songhay converted to Islam, which spread right
across the region through the activities of local merchant
groups such as the Mande or Wangara, who were respons-
ible for much of the trade in gold and kola nuts from the
Akan states. Hausa was also gradually Islamized but further
south, in the forest states such as Ife or Benin, the tradi-
tional beliefs of animism were maintained, with religious
and secular authority often intermixed.
The arrival of the Portuguese
Major events in the second half of the 15th century were to
have far-reaching effects on the states, societies and trade
systems of West Africa. Paramount among these was the
arrival of the Portuguese on the west coast in the 1440s, fol-
lowed by the establishment in 1482 of a Portuguese trading
post at Elmina on the coast of modern Ghana. This meant
that imported manufactured goods such as cloth could now
be obtained directly from the coast and that another outlet
for West African commodities was established. The slave
trade across the Atlantic also began, starting with the first
cargo of slaves from West Africa to the West Indies in 1518
- a momentous event with tragic consequences.
▲ Located on the inland Niger delta, the
town of Jenne-jeno owed its prosperity to its
great agricultural wealth, exporting rice,
cereals, dried fish and fish oil to
neighbouring regions by using the Niger as
a transport highway. It was the first of many
such towns that emerged in West Africa, all
ol them trading local raw materials and
produce for everyday commodities and
luxuries from other regions as far away
as Muslim North Africa.
▼ Like the people of Benin, the Yoruba
produced fine bronze heads and figurines.
However, they are particularly renowned for
their terracotta heads, such as this one ol a
1 2th-l 3th century queen from Ife.
© FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: AFRICA 10,000 bc-ad 500 pages 22-23 O AFRICA 1500-1800 pages 136-37
STATES AND TRADE IN EAST AFRICA
500-1500
A SoopslMW brcughr [ram n source
24 k'rlomslres |1 S mtel woy *tts used
or Git o! Zimbabwe to ratve ritual objects
in the (nm ol people and birds.
1* The ogiicuhurd communities that had
colonized fosl and southern Afikn in the 1st
millennium ,10 developed into kingdoms oad
slates ia the early centuries of the 2nd
millennium. Etoih cottte-herding and
command of raw materials - including gold.
copper and ivory - were by no* of mojor
importance. En the north, following a
mission of 543, Christianity had ueiome
established in the Axumite kingdom, while
Muslim traders who settled on the coast
Irani the 9th renlury were responsible not
only lor the introduction of Islam but also
the development ol Islamic slotBS. Further
inlond elites emerged, marked by ich
burials surh as those nl Sangn and by
il centres such as Great Zimbabwe
In the f>rh century East Africa was ci mosaic of very
different cultural groups employing a variety of subsis-
tence strategies. Though in many areas foraging was still
the primary means of providing food, agriculture and stock-
keeping had already spread throughout the length of the
continent. In areas such as the arid far southwest and the
forests ol' central Africa, nomadic hunter-gatherers, being so
well adapted to these environments, were slill thriving in
1500 AD. However, by the Nth century more settled com-
munities had also begun to he established, which frequently,
controlled resources such as copper anil ivory or acted as
trading settlements. Some of these settled communities
later developed into kingdoms and heeame integrated into
extensive trading networks.
lit Ethiopia the (Christian Axumite kingdom had begun
to decline in the 7th century after losing control of its ports
to the Arabs, and was finally destroyed in the 10th century.
Christianity nevertheless remained strong in Ethiopia, and
the focus of Christian Klhiopia {map 1) shifted south from
Axum to I.alibela (then called Adefa I. While the Axmnitc
kingdom had been urban in character, the empire which
1
>\ 1 States and trading communities
3 Monw suliQiulffl in iV 1 ?rh century
I Smriil seitr&TOM in foe 14th c&rihjry
I ..'imbDhrte In llie iGrM $rti rwiuri^
~| BinvoiD feingfirjin m thi 14th ttittury
—
*
Mogadishu
Equator
Titamfa
f^imba Island ' H d t II M
o
e e a 11
Strvgo
aftjMand
Kit*,
I
Jfc
1 '"Wohernor
f
Gfw3f 2irrittibw t
Mapungutwc O
I
/
*J) T '^a/C vrico ,„
replaced it was largely feudal, its rulers shilling their court
when local resources had been exhausted. Rock -cut
churches, created between the 10th and the 15th centuries,
arc the main legacy of the Christian Ethiopian Empire.
The 1m. imitation tip East Afruu
To the cast and southeast of the Christian empire. Islamic
trading settlements were established along the coast and
along the trade routes leading into the interior from the
major ports, of which Zeila was perhaps the most important.
As the Muslim population increased, the creation of a
number of Islamic sultanates led to conflict with the
Christian Ethiopian Empire. During this period the Somali
slowly expanded from around the Gulf of Aden - along the
coast north to Zeila and south to Mogadishu, and into the
interior - to occupy much of the Horn of Africa. By the 12 th
century Islamization of this area had become well advanced.
During the Oth century a series of trading settlements,
united by a common religion, language and style of Using,
emerged along the East African coast. These Swahili-
speaking Islamic communities, though African, lay on a
branch of the great trade routes connecting the Red Sea,
southern Arabia and India, and they adopted various
aspects of the cultures with which they came in contact. By
the 14th century Swahili towns and settlements had greatly
expanded from the early sites of Manda and Hhanga and
stretched from Mogadishu south to Chtbucnc, with com-
munities on the Cmiorcs and Madagascar. Towns such as
Ivihva contained fine, multi-storied houses huih of coral, and
their inhabitants ate a diet containing rice, spices and
coconut - cosmopolitan Indian Ocean tastes.
Statk formation in the intkrtor
Political developments also occurred in interior East Africa.
In the region of the Creal Lakes a series of huge earthwork
enclosures was built: at Bigo over 10 kilometres (six miles)
of ditches and ramparts enclosed almost 300 hectares (750
acres). It is thought that these en closures were used for cor-
ralling cattle and that this kingdom, which later came to be
known as Bunyoro, based its wealth and power on its
control of cattle. Further south, control of the copper and
goldficlds (map 2) may have been a factor in the rise of
other powerfol elites. An excavated sequence of burials at
Sanga illustrates the emergence of a hierarchical society by
the 1 Oth century and the development of a currency system
of uniform small copper crosses. Although the main copper
belt w-as 200 kilometres (125 miles) to the south, the society
represented in the Sanga cemetery used copper to indicate
wealth and status.
On the Zimbabwe Plateau, with its highland and lowland
grazing areas and its gold, iron, copper and tin resources,
a powerful elite emerged at the beginning of the present
millennium. Its capital was located at Great Zimbabwe
{map J), a substantial complex of stone towers and enclo-
sures surrounded by dugu (mud structures), which may
have had a population of some 18,000 people. Similar
stone structures are found across the plateau, indicating
the extent of the authority exercised by the Zimbabwe
elite. Religion may have played a role in legitimizing this
authority: many ritual objects have been found at
Great Zimbabwe, in particular soapstone carvings and
monoliths, sortie surmounted by birds.
East African trad*
The control and exploitation of particular resources or of
trade routes played a role in the development of virtually
even- state and kingdom in East Africa. The area was rich in
resources - in metals such as gold, copper anil iron, and itt
exotic materials such as ivory. Whereas West Africa, with its
treacherous winds and coasts, had to rely on the trans-
Saharan trade routes until the end of the 1 5th century. East
Africa was Connected from an early date to the trade net-
works of the Bed Sea and Indian Ocean (pagBS 52-53), and
beyond as far cast as .lava and China (map 2). At the north-
ern end of the coast, traders mav have been active from as
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
~7 w
to Near tan
and Anatolia
■''
M tt l i i 5 rro " ea u Sea
EGYPT
k>h™ 5to'
2U
Sudor.
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ARABIA
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\
Socafra
/
Equator
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Mogadishu-^'
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lafa
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A'
/
QGreo* Zimbabwe
2 Trade mhitk and commodito!
M
early as the 1st century ad, when it was found that using
the favourable winds, a good dhow could make a return trip
t'rum Mombasa ti> Gambay during one monsoon season.
The main export from the Horn of Africa was slaves,
shipped up the lied Sea and to the Arabian Peninsula. In
return various manufactured goods were imported, includ-
ing arms from the Arab world and ceramics from Arabia,
Persia and China. Ceramics were also a major import along
the length of the East African coast, where Swahili houses
were built with rows of wall niches to display their collec-
tions of porcelain. Other imports included textiles, spices
anil sugar. Great Zimbabwe grew wealthy from the trading of
copper, gold and iron ore. and the coastal trading towns
controlled the export of various products - metals, ivory and
slaves - from the interior, to which they transported beads.
The trading communities of the East African coast
reached their height at the end of the 15th century. In 1447
a Portuguese expedition led by Vaseo da Gama landed at
Sofala, beginning a new chapter in the history of East Africa.
Initially the Portuguese established forts at Kilwa and Sofala
to safeguard their trade routes to India, but the rich coastal
trade here soon became an equal attraction. The nature of
these coastal settlements, and their relationship with the
interior, would now alter irrevocably.
°0<
0«
3 Great Ziruaiw
S40M sfrurjins
J" "i AiW <A 00(,0 his
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A Trode mules orross (he Indian Occon
which had existed al least from the 1st
tenhiry AD, flourished during the period
from SCO to 1 500. Taking advantage ol the
monsoon winds in both directions, dhow
sailed between ihe ports nf Easl Africa, the
Red Sea, India, Sri lanku, Southeast Asia
nad China bearing raw materials, spites and
luxury goods - among idem Persian and
Chinese porcelain.
< In oboul 1 ISO. stone structures began
to be constructed at Great Zimbabwe.
comprising dryslone walk forming
enclosures, platforms to support huh and a
massive enclosure containing a conical
lower. Great Zimbabwe was ibe capilal of
the rulers af a satiety thai drew its wealth
from both cattle-keeping and trading with
the eaaslal slates af East Africa. In ihe mid
I5lb century the setliemenl - like Kilwa on
the taasl - began to decline.
© FROM HUNTING TO FARMING: AFRICA 10,000 bc-ad 500 pages 22-23 © AFRICA 1500-1800 pages 136-37
CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA
AND SOUTH AMERICA 500-1500
A Gold - ol which ihis Chimu tm, or
ceremonial knife, is mode - was prized by
mony South Amnion cultures for lis
symbolic connection with the son.
▼ The Yocolbn Peninsula ond adjacent
regions were homo to the Maya. In the
period 500 to !00 large cities, some
containing os many as 100,000 people,
dominated the smoller cities ond kingdoms
under divine ruins, Colokmu! in
southeastern Cnrripechc. was by lor the most
aclive in forging alliances and orchestrating
bottles. A persistent antagonism existed
between (olokmul and the similarly large
and prestigious kingdom ol Tifcu! with both
apparently organized iota slate-like entities.
Mesoamerica and the Andes region of South America
wore - home to some of the most sophisticated civil-
izations in ancicnl Ameriea - including, in the
ptriod from around 5(M> to ] 500. the hater Maya, To) tec.
Teuehitlau, Tarascan, Zaputec. Mixtee, Siean and (lliimir
While some consisted of only nne ethnic group* others occu-
pied an ecologically distiller region, such as areas in the hot
lowlands (tiem catiente) or cooler highlands (crerrvirWii).
Most began in a heartland under tight dynastie control but
then spread to more distant areas which were governed only
indirectly, often through local rulers.
Tin: C.HlMl CI LTTJRE
To the west of the Andes the Chimu. a dynasty from the
Moche Valley. gradually came to dominate a thin coastal
strip in Pem between the I Oth and 15th centuries (tneep J ).
[(sonographic clues suggest substantial continuity with the
religion of the earlier Mnehc state (jxyjes .I4-.T5), although
with a new twist: the capital city of Chan Chan contains ten
immense enclosures thought to have served as mortuary
temples for deceased Chimu emperors.
In three phases of expansion the Chimu lords extended
control over and beyond the valleys once controlled by the
Moche. with the same tendency of avoiding highland zones.
Evidence of Chimu control in the south is patchy as local
polities were incorporated by the Chimu without any sub-
stantial change to local government liy contrast, areas to
the north may base been subjected to territorial conquest.
Around 1.15(1 the Chimu conquered the Lambayeque Valley,
where the Sienn culture with its rich burials and prosper-
ous, irrigated settlements had succeeded the Moche. Chan
Chan wielded heavy control until 1475, when the Chimu
emperor was seized by the Incas (pttgcn 1 10-1 1 1 and taken
hack to their highland capital of Cuzeo.
AeOTKBHQ:
Chidm ku
Gulf of
Mexico
rjUnmcJ
kanan QKofaoh
PI JJOlobw
5o»il
-,Cot»
ZmuP'
5o>ril
C'Edzno
Yucatan
Peninsula
c
Comalcatco
'■ ..lam-on
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ate
Negro
i ,:,„.
ColQklHulr
°eip*JH>
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Lamdnal
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"XunnnruiriiaK
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Ocea n
2 Un Classic Maya 550-900
Swjjhik! boundflrv of rogkmiil Mine
o
dDqiunnl capimJ
O
Urtouentrf
:l
A Al its height hi 1475 the (bimu culture
occupied a thin coastal strip from new
preseni-doy lima lo me Gull ol Guayaquil,
in Ecuador. Sketchy historical evidence helps
identify the the lords ol Chimu and of its
capital (ban (ban. who presided aver an
expansion thai emanated ham the Moche
Valley. By 1 200 Ibis dynasty held sway aver
live valleys and by 1475, led by Emperor
Minchancaman, rl hod vaulted over the
Sechum Desert into a region lormerry
linked lo the Amazonian cultural area
Great canals connecting river vaieys
fucililnlcd irrigation agriculture ond the
growth ol urban civilization in the heartland
of the Chimu.
The Latch Maya
In Mcsuamericn the Maya went through great changes in the
period between 500 and the Spanish conquest in the 16th
century. Until about 800, kingdoms ruled by "holy lords"
and administered by courtiers waged war and created
alliances against a backdrop of a rising population - one that
approached live million in the central Yucatan Peninsula
alone (mttfi 2). However, between 800 and 900 the popula-
tion plummeted dramatically for a variety of reasons, some
of them agricultural and meteorological (such as envir-
onmental degradation) and others political, including
intensified conflict between elites.
The so-called "Maya Collapse" was more pronounced in
the centre of the peninsula than elsewhere, partly due to a
lower birth rate and a higher mortality rale here than
elsewhere, hut also because of large-scale movements of
people into more peaceful zones. Thus while the reduced
population of the central area settled on defended islands in
lakes, some Maya groups undoubtedly moved to cities in the
northwest which had only just overcome a severe water
shortage by deseloping a new means of collecting and
storing rainwater in underground eistems.
At the time of the collapse, the large city of Chiehen ltza
lorded over a confederacy that shaped the northern penin-
sula (mccjj .1). In the late [3th century the smaller city of
Mayapan took over, its rule lasting until around 1450. The
final years before the .Spanish conquest saw power disperse
into .small kingdoms - a development that made the Yucatan
Peninsula far more resistant to Spanish incursions than
Tenochtitlan. imperial city of the Aztecs in the Valley of
Mexico (pages i 10-11),
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
3 Post-Classic Yucatan and highland Mexico c 900-1 500
| j Tottet iiearriOTd from ?D0
| Nun Wnya arec
of
,h:vo'.
£'
die
— *- Immigration ul Tnheei t. 900
• PUTun Wnya trodfl te ntte
4?
■neltlwuii
B
otfiiian
— > Sproad of Tallw influence c. 980—1 20D
D Majgi Mop aniec 900-1450
e
Mt
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• Ictlttfr
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The Toltecs
The emperor of the Aztecs was one of the 15th-century
rulers in Mesoamerica who claimed descent from the
Toltecs, a legendary people who had inhabited the semi-
mythical paradise city of Tula. There is some historical
evidence to support these legends, Tula having been
identified with a major ruined city which was at its peak
around the 10th century and was abandoned and destroyed
around 1160 (map 3). Its inhabitants, the Toltecs, included
groups from the Gulf coast as well as Nahuatl speakers
originally from the "barbarian" lands to the north.
Monumental sculptures and other artwork at Tula show the
Toltecs as warriors - and practising the Mesoamerican
rituals of captive sacrifice and the ballgame.
Major conflict around 980 may have led one group of
Toltecs to flee to the Yucatan, where religious and perhaps
dynastic elements typical of Tula appeared in Ghichen Itza
at this time. The Toltecs remaining at Tula then came to
dominate a large area of central Mexico, playing a major role
in trading networks which stretched as far north as the
Pueblo area of southwestern North America (pages 108-9),
the source of highly-prized turquoise. After the collapse of
Tula there was probably a major dispersal of its inhabitants,
introducing Toltec elements into the Valley of Mexico,
Cholula and the Maya area.
The Teuchitlan, Tarascan, Zapotec and Mixtec
civilizations
Western Mexico (map 4) has often been described as the
land of "enduring villages", each with deep-shaft tombs con-
taining sculptures of everyday life. However, recent research
has shown that from 500 to 900 this hilly, dry and remote
part of Mesoamerica contained not only shaft tombs but also
a distinctive temple type known as the guachimonton: a cir-
cular configuration of mounds around a central pyramid,
often with a ballcourt extending out as an alley from the
central group of buildings. The concentration of such fea-
tures in the Teuchitlan Valley, together with raised field
agriculture (chinampas) and fortified control points along
valleys leading into this area, suggest a unitary state.
By the late pre-Conquest period a local people, speak-
ing an isolated language known as Tarascan, controlled a
large area of western Mexico around Lake Patzcuaro, from
where they successfully harried the Aztecs. The Tarascans
were exceptional craftsmen, particularly in their working of
gold and silver. Their emperor, the kasonsi, commissioned
stepped platforms known as yacatas, probably the funerary
monuments of his ancestors. In a dualistic pattern also
common in central Mexico the kasonsi shared power with a
powerful priest.
To the southeast of the Tarascan kingdom, in the Oaxaca
Valley, were the Mixtecs. They had eclipsed the power of the
Zapotecs, who around 700 had abandoned their great
Classic centre of Monte Alban in the valley and later moved
to a new base at Mitla. Here the Zapotecs constructed a for-
tified stronghold with fine palaces and continued to practise
sacrificial rites until the arrival of the Spanish.
The Mixtecs, who were originally based in a series of
small warring kingdoms in the north and west of the Oaxaca
Valley, expanded their territory by warfare and dynastic
marriages during the Post-Classic period (between 900 and
the Spanish conquest). By 1350 they controlled the Oaxaca
Valley and influenced neighbouring regions as far as
Cholula. Both the Mixtecs and Zapotecs suffered at the
hands of the Aztecs, but neither people was ever completely
conquered; like the Tarascan Empire, both these cultures
would soon be destroyed by powerful European invaders.
A After the "Maya Collapse" in the 9th
century, Chichen Itza flourished before
being replaced in the late 13th century by
a political hegemony centred on the densely
settled and walled city of Mayapan. Trading
communities prospered both along the coast,
particularly behind the protection of the
barrier reef on the east coast of the Yucatan
Peninsula, and in the southwest, home of
the Putun Maya, who operated a major
Post Classic maritime network.
▼ From an original homeland somewhere
in the Sonora Desert in the extreme
northwest of Mexico, Nahuatl-speaking
peoples - among them the ancestors of the
Toltecs and Aztecs - migrated into central
Mexico via western Mexico, an area that
was subject to substantial population
movements between 500 and 900.
Ebmflcn ^ MuoUco
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Apatangon
Pacific Ocean
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4 Western Mesoamerica 500-1475
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© MESOAMERICA 1200 bc-ad 700 pages 32-33 © SOUTH AMERICA 1400 bc-ad 1000 pages 34-35 © SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS 1492-1550 pages 120-21
EAST ASIA
907-1600
► In wffitrosl lo the cosmopolitan and
cxparrsianEst fang dynasty the Song dynasty
was introspective and defensive. The threat
from the north forced Hib Song to maintain
o massive professional army, which by 1 040
contained ovei 1 ,250,000 men. Military
expenditure exploded and the production of
arms and nimcui reached unptecedonled
rates. The Song also developed new
methods of warfare: the first surviving
formula for gunpowder dates horn this
period, although it hod been invented
under the Tang.
A A painted wooden carving of Buddha
Itom lopon's Mutomachi period
( 1 33 5-1 573) conveys o vastly different
image lo the Irodrfloaol Buddhist figures of
the Indian subcontinent. Arriving in Japan
from China by the 6th century, Buddhism
was hugely influential, notably in education,
but it failed lo replace the indigenous
religion of Sbinlo.
Following the fall of tile Tang dynasty in *)07 {pages
72-73 ), southern China was broken up into small
"kingdoms" ruled over by warlords, while northern
China was controlled by a rapid succession of "dynasties".
the Later periods of the Liang. Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou. This
period of disunity, known as the Ten Kingdoms and Five
Dynasties, was ended in 960 by the general Zhao Kuaugyin.
who brought China under the eomrol of the Sung dynasty
and reigned as Fmperor Taizu until f > 76
The reunified Chinese Empire (man I) was rather differ-
ent in character from its Tang predeeessor. It was inueh
smaller: Central Asia had been lust, and the [,iao state in the
northeast was eontrolled by the Kit i tan people, the Xixin
State in the northwest by the Tangut people. The Khitan and
the Tangut were non-Chinese, and the north presented a
constant military threat to the Song. Initially the Song
emperors established the northern eity of Kaifciig as their
capital. 1 lowever, after the loss of much of northern China to
Jurehcn invaders, who created the Jin state, the Song estab-
lished a second capital further south in Hangzhou.
CULTURE AN1> ECONOMY OF THE SolVC PERIOD
The Song period saw a great revival in Confucian ism.
regarded as the native Chinese philosophy, at the expense of
buddhism, which had been imported from India during the
Tang period. The class of scholar-officials burgeoned as great
emphasis was placed on civil service examination, which
began during the Han period and continued under the Tang
rulers, as the method of recruiting the governing elite. Ily the
end of the era some 4()0,0(X) candidates sat exams eaeh year,
sometimes with hundreds of aspirants chasing a single post.
Scholarly families fuelled a demand for the many new books
of all sons that the improvements in printing, such as wood-
block printing and the use ol* moveable type, allowed to be
produced. The Song era also witnessed new artistic forms,
notably the rise of landscape painting - and indeed the
Emperor Iluizong (r. 11(H)- 1 126) was blamed for the loss of
the north because he allowed his interests in art to distract
him from government.
The population of China rose to over IIMI million by
1 1dd. with a much higher increase in the south than in tile
north II i a^ demographic growth was accompanied by great
economic growth and an expansion in mercantile activity,
notably in waterborne trade, facilitated by the world's first
paper money. Vast new tracts of land were opened up for
agriculture, and the development of an unregulated property
market led to the appearance of huge estates. All across
China new cities flourished, often starting out as bustling
markets but with tea houses and shops soon added to attract
traders and customers. In the T.lth century the Italian trav-
eller Marco Polo was to describe the later Song capital of
Hangzhou as the finest and most splendid city in the world.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
Events in the northeast
The Liao state in the northeast was a union of a number of
Khitan tribes - originally from the margins of the
Manchurian steppe - brought together by the ruler Abaoji in
the early 10th century. Their state comprised a solidly
Khitan northern part and a southern part divided into 16
provinces and occupied mostly by the three million Chinese
ruled over by the Khitan. From the late 10th century the
Khitan repeatedly attacked the Koryo kingdom in Korea,
capturing the capital Kaegyong in 1011. There were also
frequent forays against the Tangut to the west.
By the 12th century a new power had emerged in the
northeast - a confederation of Jurchen tribes from the
mountains of eastern Manchuria. Following victory over the
Liao state in 1125, the Jurchen seized north China two
years later and established the Jin dynasty (map 2). The
Song dynasty survived in the south until 1279, when the
whole country fell to the Mongols (pages 98-99); they were,
in their turn, to be replaced in 1368 by the Ming dynasty.
Korea and Japan
On the Korean Peninsula (map 3) the Koryo kingdom lasted
until 1392. The later years of the dynasty were marked by
repeated debilitating incursions by northern nomads and,
from 1231, a series of invasions by Mongol armies. In 1232
the court was forced to flee the capital to Kanghwa Island
and by 1259 the government had accepted Mongol domina-
tion. Rebellions and coups took their toll, and in 1388
General Yi Song-gye mounted a coup d'etat, ushering in the
Yi dynasty that was to last from 1392 until 1910 (map 4).
Hanyong, modern Seoul, replaced Kaegyong as the
capital and in October 1446 Hangul, the new Korean script,
was promulgated. Employing a phonetic alphabet, which can
be learnt much more quickly than Chinese ideographs, this
script brought literacy to the peasants and enabled the
gradual appearance of a vernacular literature.
In Japan the seat of government shifted from Kyoto to
Kamakura in 1185 as military overlords, or shoguns, took
power from the emperor in Kyoto. The Kamakura period
(1185-1335) saw the development of the militaristic
samurai culture. In 1274 and 1281 two unsuccessful
MONGOLS
Kyoto o
JAPAN
Kpmplnjra
■
Somh Chititi -SVrr
2 East Asia in 11 50
MON People
expeditions were launched against Japan from Korea by the
Mongols. Power returned to the imperial capital of Kyoto in
the Ashikaga or Muromachi period (1335-1573), but during
the Onin Wars, which began in 1467 and continued for over
a century, the country was wracked by bloody civil conflict.
Christianity arrived in 1543, accompanied by new tools of
war, including castle architecture and flintlock guns.
The internal fighting was ended by two successive uni-
fiers of the country, Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi,
whose respective castles give their names to the Azuchi-
Momoyama period (1573-1613). After winning control of
most of Japan in 1590, Hideyoshi failed in his first invasion
of Korea in 1592 when his force of 160,000 men - aiming to
conquer China after subduing Korea - were thwarted after
the Korean admiral Yi Sun-Sin famously cut his enemy's
nautical supply lines.
Japanese incursions into Korea were met with counter-
attacks by combined Ming Chinese and Korean forces, and
indeed Hideyoshi died in his second attempt at conquering
Korea in 1597. Power passed to Tokugawa Ieyasu, who estab-
lished the Tokugawa Shogunate (pages 140-41) and closed
the doors of Japan to the outside world.
▲ In 1 1 61 the Jin dynasty adopted
Kaifeng, the old Song seat of government
on the Huang He, as their capital, while the
retreating Song set up a new capital further
south at Hangzhou.
T The 1 6th century in Japan is known as
the era of the Warring Stales, or Sengoku
period, during which regional warlords
fought each other to win control of the
country. When it ended, the Japanese rulers
set their sights on conquering Korea.
JIN
Myonqih mot
Kiiu/itnrii
3 Korea under the Koryo
DYNASTY 936-1392
Arid
■ [oold
■ fetiicf ffdmiustictive
headquarters
■"-"■ Wall bslwesrt Kefeti and fui
■ (l y.:i kill are
itSTV'?'"'
ChVfigiiiTTfcsi
k Under ttie Koryo, pottery monufocture
flourished. Cultural achievements included
the publication of the first 'Korean histories.
while among technical innovations was the
use of moveable type, leading 10 the world's
fist costing of metal type in 1403.
4 Korea and Japan 1400-1600
| Temrory unified by Ona Nonunoga
Hideyosriis route 1552
by 1 587
HidByostii's route 1597
22 WmgewodnmniiilHO-S?
:^-* CDuiiiBriiirorl by Ming
I^p-^ HldsyKiis inililaiy '.mipoqis
and taean Fans
.-. fcrlrmnJtlt
15?!, 1597
© EAST ASIA IN THE TANG PERIOD 618-907 pages 72-73 © CHINA 1368-1800 pages 138-39 © TOKUGAWA JAPAN 1603-1867 pages 140-41
THE MUSLIM WORLD
1000-1400
▼ During the I Oth century the political
unity uf the Muslim world tcllopied. The
Abksid caliphs, previously dominonl from
Ihe Atlantic la India, were replaced by a
series ol regional dynasties, and ihe caliph
in Baghdad was reduced to little more than
At the beginning of the I llh century the Muslim world
stretched from Spain in the west to the borders of
( lentral Asia and India (mop 1 ). Yet the political and
religious unity provided Tor most of the Muslim world by the
Abbasid Caliphate - with the notable exception of 1'mayyad
Spain - had been lost by the lUth century. The Abbasid
Empire had fragmented and thu central lands of Egypt and
Iraq were occupied by the Fatimids and the Buyids, both
Shiite states that rejected the Sunni caliph's religious
authority. The caliph himself now survived as no more than
i may./.;*
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| StterhstaisntB pec
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► Under Malik Shoh, the Sejuk-led
wot bonds ol die Ogui lurks reunited much
ol the old Abbasid Empire. His authority
was hosed loosely on o combination of
personal prestige and Ihe ability, furnished
by his miliary successes, to distribute
material reward ta more ar less
autonomous subordinate rulers, each
with his own warrior following.
•> Ihe unity fostered by the Seljuks in the
1 1 Ih century was illusory. Beliont on
canli rated military expansion la provide Ihe
rewards coveted by local leaders, it was not
sustainable in the long term. Instead, in the
1 2th century the Muslim world fragmented
niTu a series of regional authorities - o
Localization of power which made possible
gains by the Byzantines, crusaders, nomads
and others at the expense of particular
Muslim r
2 The Siuuk Empire 1 092
| leirirori tally odmirwurtrl by Y£a lerirrc^ ™M by brrHfliB of Setoli it
Sd|ut siiiuis L.N1 Wnitoysioti
a powerless figurehead in Baghdad under the ignominious
tutelage of a Buy id sultan. In the far west the Umayyad
Caliphate was close to collapse and partition between a
number of successor states - the tidfii kingdoms - and the
Maghreb (N'orth Africa) was divided between several Berber
dynasties. The major power in the east was the Ghaznavids,
a Turkish dynasty of former si use soldiers whose only rivals
were the recently converted Turkish Qarakhankls and the
still largely non-Muslim Turkish nomads, especially the
Oguz, on the steppe to the north. Muslim political weakness
had already allowed the Byzantines to expand into Syria and
Armenia, and it would soon open the way for Christian eon-
i|iicsts in Spain and Sicily.
TtiK Great Seiji'k Kmi'ihe
In the west the Muslim retreat was only temporarily halted
by the occupation of Muslim Spain by Berber dynasties from
the Maghreb - first the Almoravids (1086-1143) and later
the Almohads ( 1 15(1-1228). In the central and eastern kinds
the situation was transformed first by the conversion of the
i iguz Turks to Sunni I rather than Shiite] Islam, and then In
1(138 by the Oguz invasion of Iran, led by the Seljuk
dynasty. Victory over the Ghaznavids at Dandankail in
1040, the conquest of Baghdad from the Buyids in 1055 and
the defeat of the Byzantines at Manzikert in 1071 enabled
the Seljuks to create a loose Sunni empire that stretched
from the edge uf the steppe to Anatolia and Palestine. The
religious, if not the political, authority of the Abbasid caliph
was restored, and the next target was Shiite Egypt
The so-called Great Seljuk Empire (to distinguish it from
the later Anatolian state of the Seljuks of Rum) reached its
zenith under Malik Shah (mop 2). His death in 11)92 opened
a new phase of political instability and fragmentation which
provided the opportunity in 1098-99 for Latin Christians
from western Europe to establish the Crusader States in
Syria and Palestine (jt«ges 94-95). The Seljuks continued
to rule in parts of western Iran as late as 1 194, but the
Seljuk era was over in Syria by 1117, and in most of eastern
Iran by 1 1 56. (Inly in Anatolia did an independent branch
of the Seljuk dynasty flourish into the 13th century.
One beneficiary of .Seljuk decline were the Abbasid
caliphs, who enjoyed a new-found political independence in
southern I rail , but otherwise the central and eastern lands
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
of the Muslim world fell to Turkish dynasties. Several of
these lineages, including the Xengids, the lldegissids and the
Salghurids, had their origins as atabegu, holders of
delegated Seljuk authority (map J), hut there were two
important exceptions - the Ayyubids and the Ghurids.
The Ayyubids were a Kurdish dynasty who began as
soldiers serving the Zcngids. The most famous Ayyubiil,
Saladin, overthrew the Fatimid ('aliphate in 1171, so restor-
ing Sun ni authority in Egypt. Having expelled the Zengids
from Damascus and Aleppo and retaken .Jerusalem from the
crusaders, he established himself as the dominant Muslim
leader in the western Near East (pages 94-95).
The Ghurids were an Iranian dynasty from a tribal back-
ground in eastern Iran. They crime to prominence serving
the Ghaimavids and Seljuks - before, like the Ayyubids.
taking over from their former masters as rulers in their own
right. From the 1150s until their disastrous defeat by the
nomad Qara Khitai in 120-1, the Ghurids were the leading
power in eastern (ran. Their conquests in India between
1192 and 1206, going beyond the earlier Ghaznavid terri-
tories based on Lahore, laid the foundation for the Turkish
Sultanate of Delhi in 1211 and long-lasting Muslim rule in
the subcontinent {mafi 4).
The Mongol invasions
The late 12th century, the age of Saladin and the Ghurids,
was a period of calm before a storm which threatened the
complete destruction of Islam. From 1219 the pagan
Mongols invaded and gradually conquered the area of
modern-day Iran. Iraq and eastern Anatolia (pages 98-99),
Baghdad was sacked in 125K, and the last generally recog-
nized Abbasid caliph put to death. In the West. Christian
armies were conquering most of what remained of Muslim
Spain -and in 1217-21, and again in 1249-50, they threat-
ened to seize Cairo and end Muslim rule in Egypt.
The Muslim world was saved partly by disunity among
the Mongols. After 1242 the Mongols in the west were
divided between the Golden Horde, the Ukhanatc and the
Chaghatai Khanate, and they frequently fought one another
as fiercely as they did their non-Mongol enemies (map 5).
Islam as a religion and a culture also proved capable of
convening some of its conquerors. Although the Spanish
Christians proved resistant, both the Golden Horde and the
llkhan Empire had converted to Islam by the early 1 4th
century. Muslim survival was also due to fierce resistance -
in India from the sultans of Delhi, in Syria and Palestine
from the Mamluk rulers of Egypt.
s (usually Turks imported
I been a feature of Muslim
8th century. The Egyptian
serving the Ayyubids were
Kipchak Turks, brought as
from the Black Sea and
Kabul
TIBET
tM.sk
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MALWA
BAHMANI
SULTANATE
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VUAYANAGAR
4 India under the Sultanate of
Delhi 121 1-1398
B
Suliannfe of Dalii i?3fc
□
Additional aiea ai Sdnraro of M\* 13-35
I
Hindu ureas nor mkfln over by Muslim
Tnnrrtong's irwwri and Sod ol Defrri
139B-9V
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UWkto*
A
Bafn> rttrtt dole
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SAKANDIP
taken to Egypt, where they were converted to islam and
trained to become a formidable military force. In 1250, after
the French crusader invasion landed, the leaders of one of
the main mamluk regiments murdered the last Ayvubid
sultan in Egypt and seized power. By the beginning of the
14th century the Mamluk regime had permanently halted
the Mongol advance - and expelled the crusaders from their
last coveted territories on the Levantine mainland.
■4 Founded In 1 21 1 by Turks from
Afghanistan, the Sultanate of Delhi was ttie
man centre of Muslim domination in India
- and the base from vdikh, at least
nationally, il spread across math ol the
subcontinent However Indian nobles used
slrongpoints to ronirol trading routes as well
us peasant producers. The destruction ol the
sutlonote by the Mongol conqueror Timor-
ling in 1 398 paved the way for the
decenlralizalion ol power into the hands ol
locnl Hindu and Muslim rulers.
T Mongol military power conquer td much
of the Muslim world in the 1 3th (Hilary
However, because the Mongols converted lo
Islam their fragmented empire foiled to
threaten Muslim religious und cultural
domination of most ol the lands of the
former Abbasid Caliphate.
HINDU
STATES
3 The Musk* world 1200
| Byimriie Empire
| {rcrsodar srares
| Dmer Oinstion slews
KIP
^ Hindustani
| Muslim sttm
© THE SPREAD OF ISLAM 600-1000 pages 66-67 © THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-1500 pages 96-97
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
962-1356
▼ The Holy Roman Emperor claimed to be
the temporal sovereign of western
(hiiiiendom. ruling in co-operation with ihe
spitilaol sovereign, the Pope. However, Ihe
empire never encompassed Ihe whole of
western Christendom and had little political
substance in Italy, while relolions with the
Pope were often slorrrry.
When the Kast Prankish king. Otto I, was crowned
emperor by the Pope in Rome in ( Jd2, his empire
comprised thu.se hinds north of the Alps which h;ul
formed the East Praneia of the S43 Carolingian partition
(pages 74-75) together with Lochartngia (the .K4,l "middle
kingdom" to which Burgundy- the territories from Basel to
Provence - was to be added in 50,12-14), arid Lomhardy
(rrrcip I 1. This empire was passed on with relatively minor
geographical alteration thereafter to his son and grandson
(Otto II and Otto III) ami then to his Saltan, Staufen, Well',
Luxembourg arid llabshurg successors.
By taking the imperial title. Otto was deliberately pre-
senting himself as the successor of Charlemagne - restorer
of the Christian empire in the west - in order to enhance
his prestige. Two centuries later, when Frederick Rarharossa
succeeded to the same kingship and imperial status, he
reaffirmed the continuing tradition by instigating
Charlemagne's canonization and by adding the word "holy"
to the name of the empire. A further two centuries later, in
1,15?. Charles IV of Luxembourg secured his imperial
2 SwniwuND 1291-1529
| % (crest (cmfsl III
1 | Desi«t™es<ilrr«J*«dD<s!PcK
Itw tmlsnig lecgue 1 3U
J Hie (arm™ Suhjecl [Writs
(orrtoris aid dependence; otHed bv 1515
Bomtcyli;)
3 He Allied torts
i i 1 1 Bote of laming Swisc tonfederctim
A The Swiss ( on fed er mi on grew from an
initial "peoce ossorjotion' formed by the
three Forest Cantons in 1191 . II ei ponded
in ihe mid-1 4th tenlury la include the
towns of Luiern. Bern and Zurich in a
league which controlled me trade route
from ihe Rhine Valley across the Alps via
the Si Goilhaid Pass.
coronation in Home, and then, in 1.156, issued the Golden
Hull, This came to be viewed as the basic constitutional law
of the empire, defining as it did the right of seven electors
meeting at Frankfurt - the archbishops of Mainz, Cologne
and Trier, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of
Saxony, the Margrave of Brandenburg and the King of
Bohemia - to designate the empcror-eleet, also called "King
of the Romans". In this form, the Umpire continued until its
dissolution in 18()(j.
The Italian kingship
Within the Empire the sense of two component kingships
was maintained: the primary northern kingship comprising
Pranks, Saxons, Swabians. Bavarians and Lotharingians.
and the southern secondary kingship of the Lombards. The
emperor-elect, chosen by Gentian princes, travelled south
across the Alps to secure recognition in northern Italy and
coronation by the Pope in Home, hut there was little gov-
ernmental substance to bis position in Italy. Intermittently,
attempts were made to change this situation. Between the
mid- 10th and mid-llth centuries the Liudolfing and Kalian
emperors spent lengthy periods south of the Alps. In the
years 115H-77 the Staufen emperor Frederick Barbarossa
sought to benefit from the gathering pace of economic
growth and north Italian trade (pa^es 100-1), but failed to
win a decisive victory over the Lombard League of north-
ern town communes. His son successfully took over .Sicily
and southern Italy in 1144, but his grandson's renewed
attempt in 1 2.1f>-5t> to master Lomhardy was thwarted by
the alliance of communes and Papacy.
The pattern of northern intervention in Italy survived
the Staufeiis' loss of the Sicilian as well as the German king-
ship in 1254-dN, However, after the expeditions of Henry of
Luxembourg in 1.110-1,1 and Litdwigof Wittelshach in 1328,
imperial jurisdiction south of the Alps was merely theoreti-
cal. In practice, government and polities evolved as an
autonomous system of local regimes - and the flowering of
both Italian economic enterprise and Renaissance culture
developed independently of the bmpirc (pages Jl/J-O),
TllE NORTHERN EMPIRE
In Germany the king's position was stronger than in Italy,
yet here tun the force of localism was of primary
importance. Traditions of local lordship and identity were
very powerfully entrenched, prc-dating the Carolingian
"unification"' of the region under a single kingship, and
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
>VPAPAt V '-' )
remained the necessary framework of government. It was
impossible for any single authority to exert control over so
large and diverse an area and even when - in Germany as
elsewhere in the 12th and 13th centuries - more bureau-
cratic governmental techniques were developed, they
benefited local rulers rather than the emperor. These local
rulers might be noble dynasts, communal associations in
individual "free towns", or more varied groupings. Among
the latter the Swiss cantons, which included both Alpine
rural communities and towns, were the most successful in
consolidating a separate existence (map 2).
Eastward expansion
Both the diversity and the extent of German society were
enhanced between the 10th and 14th centuries by large-
scale expansion eastwards. In the 10th century the Saxon
Liudolfings gained acceptance as kings through their
successful military leadership in warfare against the Slavs
east of the Elbe - and above all against the Magyars who,
from 900, were raiding along the Danube Valley. The victo-
ries of Henry I in the north in 933 and Otto I in the south in
955 opened the way to German movement eastwards,
in a number of permutations of tribute-taking and land-
settling ventures (map 3).
After the 11th century, kings and emperors had little to
do with such expansion. Instead, local dynasties - such as
the Babenbergs in Austria or the Wettins in Meissen -
recruited the necessary human resources of peasant farmers
and urban traders and provided the local structure of
military and juridical organization. This movement of east-
ward expansion far exceeded even the expanded limits of
the Empire (Reich), whose princes attended the Reichstag
and engaged in the politics of elective kingship. Throughout
east-central Europe, with the active encouragement of local
rulers, German communities, equipped with German
customary law, were induced to settle alongside Slav and
Magyar populations.
From the mid-12th century some of these local rulers
were connected with crusading impulses (pages 94-95).
The Wendish Crusade from 1147 to 1185, waged by German
princes and Danish kings, brought forcible Ghristianization
to Holstein, Mecklenburg and Pomerania. A further series of
crusades developed after 1200 in the east Baltic area of
Livonia, extending into Finland by the 1240s under the
impetus of Swedish conquest. Most notably, from the 1220s
the Teutonic Order (an organization of soldier-monks,
founded in Palestine in the 1190s, whose members were
recruited from the Rhineland and other parts of the Empire)
acquired independent rule in Prussia and from there waged
the "Perpetual Crusade" against the pagan Lithuanians.
The Hanseatic League
The 12th and 13th centuries also saw the creation of a
network of German maritime enterprise in the Baltic, from
Novgorod to Flanders and England through the North Sea.
The timber, furs and grain of Scandinavia, northern Russia,
and the southern hinterland of the Baltic were shipped
westwards, with return cargoes of cloth and other manufac-
tured commodities. Merchants formed associations (hanses)
to protect and enhance their trade and in the 13th century
this trading network developed into the Hanseatic League
(map 3). The League linked the newly founded German
towns (dominated by the Hanseatic merchants) on the
southern Baltic coast between Liibeck and Riga, both south-
wards to the German hinterland and the newly exploited
lands to the east, and northwards to Scandinavia.
Throughout t is area local rulers awarded grants of privi-
lege in reti n for profit-sharing arrangements, thus
contributing o German economic and cultural expansion
within Europe.
A By the 1 3th century the movement of
Germans eastwards had advanced the limit
of the Empire over a wide band of territory
from Austria north to Meissen, Brandenburg,
Holstein, Mecklenburg and Pomerania. In
the 1 220s the Teutonic Order contributed to
the defence of Hungary and Poland against
their pagan neighbours in Transylvania and
Prussia, and in the following decades it
established control over Prussia and Livonia.
From here it waged the "Perpetual Crusade"
against the pagan Lithuanians until 1410,
when it was defeated at Tannenberg by the
Poles and Lithuanians (whose conversion to
Christianity was achieved in 1 386-87
by the less violent method of dynastic
marriage diplomacy).
© FRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-900 pages 74-75 © EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7
FRANCE, SPAIN AND ENGLAND
900-1300
1 The kingdoms or France and Burgundy c 1 050
Bwwiiirv i\ fipgitom af franca
NOR 'rnpculmr lay <ords*iips
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A Hi! mtue important regional powers In
France and Burgundy around 1 Q5Q
included Normondy, Flanders, Anjou and
Toulouse en well as the (apelian kings.
Their authority was no more stable than
hod been Iful of the Cotolingions.
▼ The kings ol Aioqchi were united in
1 1 37 with the orreody powerful counts of
Barcelona, and they used the growing
commercial wealth ol the port of Barcelona
la extend their control to southern France
through the imposition ol feudal lies.
T The Christian kings in Spain
strengthened their position by organizing
opposition to the Muslim rulers in the south.
Having held out ogoinsi the Almohads and
tlnwmids, they owron much of the
Muslim territory in the 1 3th century
Between the 10th and 13th centuries much political
control in France, Spain, Ftigland ami other areas of
western Europe was devolved to local landowning
aristocracies who built castles and employed armoured
knights tu assert their power over the peasants. Depending
on circumstances, these local magnates came more or less
under the control of kings or regional lords. There was no
simple pattern. Inn uiuki Is ini; vliaiiges in the eeonniiu
meant thai the power and influence of kings and regional
lords, after declining during the 1 1th century, had generally
grown by around 1300.
Thb Kiivcntm »»f France
During the Nth and early 9th centuries the French
Carolingian kings (pages 74-75) had been Immensely
successful in harnessing the aristocracy in a common
enterprise. However, by the end of the 10th century royal
power and the political structure of West Francia were
undergoing it fundamental transformation. One reason for
this was that in about °5I> the economy of western Europe
had entered a phase of steady growth, marked by rising
population, new settlements and an increasing volume of
exchange (pages 100-1). At the same time the Carolingian
lands in West Francia had been given away or sold off in an
attempt to buy support - and lacking any obvious foreign
enemy either to plunder or unite against, the French kings
had soon been reduced to comparative impotence. By W7.
when Hugh Capet replaced the last Carolingian king, royal
authority extended little beyond the small royal domain in
the lie de F ranee (map 1).
The extent to which power had devolved varied from
area to area, and authority by no means remained stable.
In the county of Macon, for example, the counts had largely
thrown off the authority of the dukes of Burgundy by 980.
only to then find their own authority steadily undermined.
As a result, by about 1030 the local castle-holders (ctiste/-
lotisj and great churches were in effect independent, with
their own courts exercising private justice - "banal lord-
ship" - over a large subject population.
The cnNsoi.tiiATiniv of i>o«kk
By the 12th century three factors tended to favour larger
and more coherent political units. First, the growing profits
arising from customs, tolls and urban expansion were more
easily exploited hy regional powers than by independent
castellans. As trade across Europe increased, the taxation
of its profits at regional level made kings and other greater
lords a dominating social tbree. Second, the Increasing use
of svritten records and accounts gave rise to a new bureau-
cracy of clerks, accountants and lawyers whom only the
Wealthiest could afford to employ, but who in turn allowed a
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
much more effective exploitation of resources. Third, the
spread of feudal relations enabled kings, on the basis of their
growing wealth, to impose greater obligations un their
castle-holding subjects,
SPAIN! THE RISE t>E ARAGOIN
All example of these factors hiring turned to good effect is
the rise of the House of Aragon. In the late 11th and 12th
centuries the counts of Barcelona (from 1 137 also kings of
Aragon) imposed feudal ties on the aristocracy of Catalonia,
and went on to do the same in the kingdom of Burgundy for
the turbulent aristocracy of the county of Provence (map
2). Although Count Pere IPs defeat and death at the Battle of
Muret in 1213 brought an end to Aragonesc power north of
the Pyrenees, his successors had carved out a substantial
Mediterranean empire by the end of the century (map 3).
Controlling and directing the rceonqucst of Muslim
Spain was a further lever of power in the hands of Christian
Spanish monarehs. During this period, the Christian king-
doms first terrorized the successor states (rn(fcs) to the
once-powerful Muslim L'mayyads {pages 88-89), and then
held out against the counterattack of the Berber Aimoravids
and Almohads before overrunning most of what was left of
Muslim territory in the 13th century.
ENCLA\n: A PROCESS I IF CENTRALIZATION
During the 10th and early 11th centuries the Anglo-Saxon
kings faced the threat of Viking conquest, and in the process
forged a sophisticated and centrally controlled administra-
tive machine. A network of shires was created, and royal
mints enabled the Crown to enforce a standardized coinage
and gain a considerable income through regular remintings.
4 E»*GU5H LANDS 1295
__] hm romrallBrJ by Fnglisii king*
i _
km iindei rVirjrtta Lotckrii|K
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□
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F*
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fc«h°
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•4 By 1 265 the Copefion kings diiedy or
indirectly ruled large areas of Frame, and
the extent Df English -controlled territory
hod been greoily reduced.
OWinehBk "
CSouitranitnon ° B " r "
A The English tiown effectively conltolled
moil ollhe British Isles by 1 300. Its
advance into Scotland come to n holt in
1 31-1 nHIh Eerie til Bimiiciililnim
The Norman Conquest in 1066 paradoxically reinforced the
English state, sweeping away aristocratic rivals to the crown
and leaving William i and his successors with the most
centralized and best administered state in western Europe.
As in Spain, royal power in England benefited from
controlled expansion and the distribution of any profits
arising from it. Between the 11th and 1.1th centuries the
English kings conquered Wales (complete by 1295) and
Ireland (from 1169), and threatened to do the same to
Scotland until their defeat at liannoekhurn in 1.314 {map
4). The English kings also extended their territory in
France. By the time Henry II ascended the throne in 1 154
he ruled, in addition to England and Normandy (which he
had inherited from his mother}, territory itt western Prance
(inherited from his I'lautagenef father): further territory had
come with his marriage to Eleanor of AquUaine (map 5).
FRANCF.; CirETIAN DOMINANCE
In France, luck and political skill favoured the Capctians.
The death of Henry lis son Richard I in 1 1 99 opened the
way for the French king, Philip Augustus (1 INO-122A). to
deprive Richard's brother John of French lands, including
Normandy and Anjou, in a series of campaigns between
12(1.1 and 1206. Philips achievements, confirmed by a deci-
sive victory in 1214, transformed the political geography of
western Europe, with the Capetian kings now dominant
(map 5). Parts became the uncontested political and admin-
istrative hub of the kingdom, and an intellectual centre for
the whole of Latin Christendom.
© FRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-900 pages 74-75 © EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7
THE WORLD OF THE CRUSADERS
1095-1291
A Ik backbone ol the armies ol the Frsl
Crusade was provided by linights traveling
as pari af their lords' households. The
capture ol Jerusalem in July 1099 after two
years' journeying - and a series of unlikely
military victories - convinced survivors and
coniemporoiies thai the enterprise had been
blessed by God.
► Despile many appeals, the Christian
rulers ol the Crusader Stales were unable lo
attract sufffcienl milfloty manpower lo
ensure the survival af their territories. Many
western Europeans did settle in the East, but
most regarded crusading activity as on
extended seniientiol pilnrimone rather lhan
the start af a new life as o colonial elile.
Those who did settle gradually acclimatized
to on e« tent that pilgrims and crusaders
fresh ham the West found disconcerting .
Over tin: course of 2tK» years a total of five major and
several minor crusades set curt from Christian
Europe with the' declared aim of either recapturing
or protecting (In; Holy l,:md (Palestine) from the Muslims.
The first was launched at Clermont in central France on
21 November 1095 by Pope Urban II. A vast dumber of
people - perhaps about 100,000- were inspired to take part
in a penitential military pilgrimage to recover the Holy
Sepulchre in Jerusalem Imnp /). For the Pope the expedi-
tion was a response to Byzantine appeals for help in the
wake of the Turkish conquest of Anatolia, offering the
2 Thi Ck us*D(« S»ics 1 1 40
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opportunity to raise papal prestige through the leadership of
Latin Christendom in such a spiritually beneficial enter-
prise. For the participants it was, perhaps above all else, an
opportunity to earn salvation, their enthusiasm testifying to
the degree to which Christian teaching had implanted in
Western society a tear of the dreadful fate after death that
awaited people who had not atoned for their sins. However,
hoiies of land, booty and fame were also important.
Tiik CtusAttKN Status
By the time the expedition reached Jerusalem there were
hardy 14,000 crusaders. They nevertheless managed to
capture the city and. over the next 4(1 years, establish and
expand the boundaries of four states in the surrounding
region: the kingdom of Jerusalem, the county of Tripoli, the
principality of Antioch and the county of Odessa (mem 2).
Their initial success owed a great ileal to ihe temporary
political divisions in the Muslim world. The death of the
powerful Seljuk sultan Malik .Shah in W)2 had plunged the
Sultanate into a complex civil war. Ultimately Malik Shah's
son lierkyaruk prevailed, keeping control of the area of
present-day Iraq and Iran, but Kid wan and Dukak, the sous
nf his uncle and chief opponent, Tutnsh (d. ll)*'?), still ruled
in Aleppo and Damascus respectively. The brothers were
loath to co-operate with each other, with Kerbogha (the
Seljuk governor erf Mosul whom Uerkyamk scut to bring
help aijriirlM [lie eui-.acki'. i m mnIi rh. Shiiti laliniid
Caliphate in Egypt. The 1'atimids had ruled most of Syria
and Palestine through the 1 1th century up to the 1070s, and
had themselves recaptured Jerusalem from the Scljuks rally
a year before the crusaders entered the city in 1099.
The Second Crusade ( 1 1-16 — \Hi failed to take Damascus,
and after 11S4 the situation changed significantly. In that
year Mosul, Aleppo and Damascus were united under the
aggressive leadership of Sur al-Diu. who deliberately under-
pinned his authority with an ideology of holy war against
the crusaders. The decline of the Shine Fatiuiid Caliphate
also altered the balance of power. The agricultural and
commercial riches of Kgypt were potentially the key to dom-
ination of the Levant. However, attempts led by King
Amalrie of Jerusalem between 1 10.1 and 1 ltV> to conquer or
control Kgypt merely encouraged N'ttr al-Dhl to send one of
his generals, a Kurd called .Saladin, to keep the crusaders
out. Saladin successfully fought off the crusaders, before
putting an end to the Fatimid Caliphate in 1171 (mo;) ,)).
After Xur al-Din's death in 1 174, Saladin gradually dis-
possessed his former master's heirs, and by 1 186 they had
heett forced to recognize his overlordship. Saladin was now
rihle to wage war with the combined resources of Kgypt and
Syria, and in July 1 1S7 he inflicted a crushing defeat on the
crusaders at the Battle of llauin, near the Sea of Galilee.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
Kl
3 The Crusader States 1 1 86
k^kfl fyzorilM Ernpne — ». ArwIrc'scnmpQigns 1163-69
H Qkmn ArmerJn \ Battle
I [(Ujodef 5toto ■ Hospitaller fortress
I I Selodiris toiritanes o Temnlcr fortress
A The crusaders' hold on the Holy Land
was threatened by the rise of Soladin and
the unification of Egypt and Syria. However,
during the Third Crusade, Richard I of
England came close to reversing Saladin's
11 87 conquest of Jerusalem.
The Third, Fourth and Fifth Crusades
The Crusader States were saved from complete extinction
by the arrival of the Third Crusade (1188-92) (map 4);
political divisions among Saladin's Ayyubid heirs and then
the growing Mongol threat to the world of Islam (pages
98-99) prolonged their existence. At the same time Western
enthusiasm for crusading only continued to grow, and in
fact Latin territories in the eastern Mediterranean reached
their greatest extent in the early 13th century.
The Fourth Crusade (1198-1204) was diverted to
conquer Constantinople, and its aftermath saw the creation
of a series of Latin states on former Byzantine territory
(map 5). The Fifth Crusade (1217-21), with contingents
from Germany, Italy, Austria, Hungary, England and France,
appeared close to success in Egypt before its final defeat in
1221. The French king Louis IX invested enormous
resources on crusading in the east, but his Egyptian expe-
dition of 1249-50 ended in disaster. The powerful Mamluk
state which replaced the Ayyubids after 1250 (pages 88-89)
was initially more concerned with the imminent threat from
the Mongols, but as that receded the Mamluk advance
proved relentless, culminating in 1291 in the fall of Acre,
last of the major crusader strongholds in the Near East.
The establishment of military orders
The crusading movement between 1095 and 1291 is striking
evidence of the militaristic nature of Western aristocratic
culture. It also reflects the importance of European sea
i!LTA HATE
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I toreitan rHrrftixiGS ^ Gains n OutiBnwr try 1 240
SB. Muslim sMe — Routts at man truscdcir armies
□
power, especially that of Venice and Genoa, whose ships
carried many of the crusaders to Palestine. During this
period European maritime power grew to dominate the
Mediterranean, creating a base of experience for later
expansion to the Americas and the East. The failure to
maintain crusader settlement in the Levant reflects the
strength of Muslim opposition, but also the inadequacy of
crusader manpower and resources. Even at their greatest
extent in the 1140s the Crusader States amounted to little
more than an embattled coastal strip.
One solution was the establishment by 1 139 of the mil-
itary orders of the Hospital of St John and the Knights
Templar. Effectively knights living by monastic rule, both
the Hospitallers and the Templars soon acquired extensive
properties in the West which gave them the financial
strength the settlers lacked. From the 1 140s onwards many
crusader lords found it necessary to hand over their more
exposed strongholds to the military orders, who alone had
the means to maintain and defend them.
Soon after its inception the crusading idea was trans-
ferred to other contexts. The war against the Muslims in
Spain was now treated as a crusade, as was that against the
pagan Slavs, Lithuanians and Baits in the north, where the
Teutonic Knights - founded in the Levant in the 1190s -
played a major role (pages 90-91). Also treated as
crusades were expeditions to crush heresy, such as the
Albigensian Crusade in southern France (1209-29) and
those against the Hussites in Bohemia (1420-21, 1427,
1431), as well as those against political opponents of the
Papacy. One such opponent was the Emperor Frederick II,
who had actually taken part in a crusade in 1228-29, but
himself became the target of a papal crusade in 1240-50.
Even after 1291 crusading remained deeply rooted in
Western chivalric and popular culture through to the
Reformation of the 16th century, and resistance to the
Muslim Ottomans could still be seen in crusading terms in
the 17th century. The Templars were suppressed in 1312 in
the wake of heresy charges brought by Philip IV of France,
but the Hospitallers survived (on Rhodes until 1522, on
Malta until 1798), and do so still with their headquarters in
Rome. In the modern Islamic world the crusading move-
ment has come to be seen as evidence of the long and
bloody past of Western Christian imperialism.
▲ The fifth Crusade was an attempt to
destroy Muslim power through the conquest
of Egypt, whose commercial and agricultural
wealth was the key to long-term control of
the Near East. Ironically, more was achieved
by the excommunicate crusader, Emperor
Frederick II, who in 1229 recovered
Jerusalem by negotiation.
▲ Captured from the Byzantines by the
Seijuk Turks in 1 084, Antioch was taken by
the forces of the First Crusade in 1 098. The
principality it served - one of the four
Crusader States - remained a Christian
outpost for nearly two centuries.
© THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-1400 pages 88-89 © THE DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE AND RISE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-1500 pages 96-97
THE DECLINE OF THE BYZANTINE AND RISE
OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-1500
1 The Syzaniine Empire 1025-1096
Doniirmnl religion ^~ BDundvy ol Byzantine Empire 1025
| GrrtiKlrx flvyrmirv | Teirir-arv unrip Byzantine control 1096
j§ Calhnk CtaMrjiitj | leiiitery raken ly Mjiiks of Rim I QJl-H
| ttonnpriysire and atirw Christian raadirvips A Batttfl wirri date
~" I Islnm
▲ After 1025 the Byzantine Empire lacked
the infrastructure and resources to maintain
the boundaries that had been established
under Basil II. In the east their defeat in the
Battle of Manzikert in 1 071 enabled the
Seljuk Turks to establish themselves in
Anatolia, while the Normans took aver
Byzantine territory in southern Italy.
T Following the sack of Constantinople by
the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Byzantine lands
were divided up. Territory in Europe came
under the control of a Frankish emperor,
who tried unsuccessfully to convert the
populace to Catholicism, while the centre of
Orthodox power shifted to Nicaea in
northern Anatolia.
When the Byzantine warrior emperor Basil II died in
1025 he left an empire that had doubled in size
during his reign and presented a serious challenge
to its Muslim neighbours. Unfortunately for the Byzantines,
subsequent emperors could not maintain the impetus
achieved under Basil. They became embroiled in the eccle-
siastical politics that provoked the "Great Schism" of 1054
- a theological split between the Orthodox and Western
churches that has effectively lasted ever since. The schism
invited hostility from the West at a time when Muslim power
was regrouping. Norman adventurers took control of what
was left of Byzantine southern Italy, just as a renewed
Muslim offensive by Seljuk Turks culminated in the Battle
of Manzikert (1071) - a Byzantine defeat that wiped out the
eastern gains of Basil II and established the Muslim state of
Iconium (Konya) in the heart of what had once been
Christian Anatolia (map 1).
The decline of the Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Gomnenian dynasty (1081-1185) attempted
to cope with the aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert by
rebuilding diplomatic bridges with the Latin West. A
request by Alexius I Gomnenus for modest Western mili-
tary assistance was one of the factors that promoted the
crusading movement (pages 94-95). The crusades tem-
porarily transformed the politics of the Near East by taking
Muslim pressure away from Constantinople - only to bring
the city under increasing Western or Frankish influence.
In the 12th century Constantinople enjoyed a brief
economic boom as a major staging post for western
Europeans on the road to Jerusalem. However, the empire's
finances were fundamentally weak and the Byzantines
could meet their commitments only by granting commer-
cial concessions to their erstwhile dependency, Venice. As
a result the Byzantine economy became increasingly
dominated by Venetian merchants in Constantinople - to
the extent that from 1171 onwards Byzantine rulers
attempted to cut back Venetian interests. This promoted
tension and led ultimately to anti-Venetian riots in
Constantinople at a time when the empire was increasingly
threatened in the Balkans and Anatolia. Venice was now an
enemy and took its revenge. In 1204 the old blind Venetian
doge, Enrico Dandolo, successfully engineered the diver-
sion of the Fourth Crusade away from Jerusalem and
towards Constantinople. The sea walls were breached for
the first time and the city was captured and systematically
looted over a period of three days. This event was to mark
the beginning of the Byzantine Empire's fragmentation.
Between 1204 and 1261 Constantinople was the seat of
a Frankish emperor and Latin patriarch, ruling over subor-
dinate Frankish fiefdoms: the kingdom of Thessalonica,
duchy of Athens and despotate of Achaia (map 2). Venice
dominated the Greek islands and made a particularly
lasting mark in and around Naxos (where there was a
Venetian duchy until 1566), although it proved impossible
to graft Catholicism and an alien feudalism onto rural
Greek society. Greek rule survived in Western Anatolia,
based at Nicaea, and also in Epirus and in Trebizond on the
Black Sea.
It was the Greek Emperor of Nicaea, Michael VIII
Palaeologus, who recaptured Constantinople for Orthodoxy
in 1261. The restored Byzantine Empire was, however,
beset by the same problems as before: it was economically
hamstrung, with Venetian and Genoese trading houses in
control of its international commerce. Furthermore, it was
hedged in by quarrelling rivals - threatened to the north by
Balkan Slavic peoples and in Anatolia by the Turks. By the
mid-14th century Greece had fallen to the Serbs (map 3),
who were countered not by Byzantine forces but by
advancing Muslim power. By 1354 the Ottoman Turks were
in Europe. Thereafter the Byzantine polity dwindled into a
diplomatic entity based on what was effectively the city-
state of Constantinople.
The rise of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman victors were the major Turkish force to
emerge from the crisis of the Mongol invasions that devas-
tated the Muslim world in the 13th century and eliminated
Seljuk power (pages 98-99). Ottoman rulers claimed
descent from Osman (Uthman), the most prominent of the
Muslim "ghazis" who, in the 13th century, established inde-
pendent fiefdoms amid the political ruins of what had
formerly been Byzantine and Seljuk Anatolia. Ottoman
society and culture were profoundly Islamic, but with a dis-
tinctive ethos derived from Central Asian nomadic
antecedents. Politically, the Ottoman world was oppor-
tunist and expansionist. Osman's son, Orhan Ghazi, was
able to move his capital as far west as Bursa and marry a
daughter of the Byzantine Emperor John VI Cantacuzene.
This marriage epitomized the steady increase of Turkish
influence in medieval Anatolia - a process which led to
Byzantine culture gradually losing, or abandoning, its long
struggle with Islam in the interior of Asia Minor.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
The Ottoman capture of Gallipoli in 1354 presaged a
serious Ottoman invasion of Europe (map 4). By 1365
Adrianople had become the Ottoman capital Edirne.
Advances into Serbia, culminating in the Battle of Kosovo
Polje in 1389, put an end to Serbian expansion. At the same
time the Ottomans consolidated their control of Asia Minor,
and an Ottoman navy came into being, plying the waters of
the Mediterranean, Aegean and Adriatic. Many of its cap-
tains were renegade Europeans. The first Ottoman siege of
Constantinople itself was mounted in 1391. It was to be
diverted only because of a renewed threat from the Mongols
under the leadership of Timur-leng {pages 98-99).
The defeat of Constantinople
It was now obvious that Byzantine Constantinople was
living on borrowed time. It continued to function as a centre
of scholarship and of an artistic style visible today in the
remains of medieval Mistra in the Peloponnese. The
Classical and Post-Classical heritage of Constantinople was
still impressive, despite the ravages of 1204. However, its
latter-day scholars were slipping away towards Renaissance
Italy, taking their manuscripts with them. Meanwhile, the
Ottoman Turks were developing their war machine. Since
the 14th century Ottoman victories had been won with the
aid of Balkan and other mercenaries. This recruitment of
foreigners was formalized by the use of devshirme troops
(recruited from Christian slaves taken into Islamic military
training and educated as an elite corps).
Constantinople, as a Christian bastion, continued to
receive the political sympathy of western Europe, although
this was bedevilled by a mutual suspicion which the token
reunion of the Greek and Latin churches in 1439 could not
dispel. The Greeks feared papal aggrandisement and they
had long seen unruly Western mercenaries and ambitious
Italian merchants as more threatening than the Ottoman
Turks. It was from the East, however, that the final blow was
to fall when, in 1451, the Ottomans, under Mehmet II, laid
5"W™J ftilodelfJ" Q
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KNIGHTS OF
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siege to Constantinople. Powerfully armed with artillery,
some of which was of Western manufacture, the Ottomans
broke through the walls of the city on 29 May 1453 - the
last day of the Roman Empire and the first day of a mature
Ottoman Empire that would continue to expand until well
into the 17th century.
< In 1 361 an Orthodox ruler was restored
in Constantinople in the form of the
Emperor of Nicaea, but by the mid-1 4th
century the Ottomans had taken control of
northwest Anatolia and were making
inroads into Europe. From the northwest the
Serbs were also expanding, and the restored
Byzantine Empire was powerless to resist.
▲ In their siege of Constantinople in 1 453
the Ottomans successfully used cannon to
break down the city's outer walk. They also
gained access to the harbour (the Golden
Horn), despite a Byzantine blockade, by the
feat of dragging their ships out of the
Bosporus and across a stretch of land. The
Ottoman pillage of Constantinople -
depicted here in a Romanian wall painting -
lasted for three days and nights before
Sultan Mehmet II restored order.
-4 As the Byzantine state declined, the
Ottomans moved in to fill the resulting
power vacuum, not only overcoming other
Muslim states in Anatolia, but also
establishing a stronghold in mainland
Europe and defeating the Serbs in
Kosovo in 1 389. In 1 453 they captured
Constantinople and, strengthened by this
success, they expanded westwards to control
the Balkans as far north as Belgrade.
© THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE 527-1025 pages 66-67 © THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVTD EMPIRES 1500-1683 pages 142-43
THE MONGOL EMPIRE
1206-1405
▼ The empire (pealed by Chmggis Khan
between I ?0a and his death in 1227
stieiched from China to Persia (Iran).
However, it did not survive at o united
empire beyond 1 260 when it vplil into a
number of khanales whose rulers went en to
conquer further territories - most notably
China in 1 279.
Tire lurries! hind empire ever created, the Mongol
Umpire was founded by Temujin, who united the
Mongolian and Turkish-speaking trifles roughly in the
area known today as Mongolia. In 12(16 he was acclaimed
ruler by a council of tribal leaders and given the title of
Chinjsgis (Cienghisl Khan, usually translated loosely as "uni-
versal ruler". The following year he embarked on a series of
raids into northern China, which were soon to turn into a
full-scale campaign of conquest that was only completed by
his successors over 70 years later (hkiii / ).
Meanwhile. Mongol forces were expanding westwards
along the steppe as far as the kingdom of the Muslim
Khwara/m-shah (pages HH-H')). Chiuggis Khan decided to
redirect the hulk of his army against the Islamic world, and
in a campaign lasting from 121<J to 122.1 lie conquered most
► The Mongols did not follow up the total
victories they secured in 1 2-41 at Liegnilz
(in Poland] and Pest (in Hungary), and
soon withdrew to the south Russian steppe.
This may hove been because of the news of
the death of Ihe Great Khan Ocjodei. hut
also perhaps due lo a lack ol sufficient
posture lands in this oieo
2 Mongol ummigns in eastern Europe
A Mongdwrvy
— *■ Mongol atance
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
▲ After bringing the Turkic nomadic
populations inhabiting the steppe north of
the Caspian and Black seas under control,
Mongol forces launched a devastating
campaign in the winter of 1 237-38 against
the cities of the Russian principalities. In
1 240 the Battle of Kozelsk - depicted in
this illustration from a 1 6th-century Russian
chronicle - resulted in the city of Kiev being
razed to the ground.
of the kingdom of the Khwarazm-shah. Great destruction was
wrought on the cities of Bukhara and Samarqand and in the
area south of the Oxus. A rudimentary Mongol administrative
apparatus was set up in Iran, which grew into the bureau-
cracy that ruled the country into the 14th century.
There were several reasons for Ghinggis Khan's success in
establishing a widespread tribal empire which long outlived
him. He built a large army of top-quality soldiers - the tradi-
tional horse-archers of the Eurasian steppe, experts in the
tactics of concerted mass assault, whom he infused with iron
discipline. An effective military leader himself, he had the
foresight and talent to cultivate a cadre of extremely capable
and loyal generals. lie introduced several changes that laid
the groundwork for a long-term Mongol administration - the
adoption of an alphabet for the Mongolian language, the basic
tenets of a financial system, and a system of law known as
the Yasa. Finally, he propagated an imperialist ideology,
premised on the assumption that the Mongols had a heaven-
given "mandate" to conquer the world. All those who resisted
this mandate were rebels against the heavenly order and
could be dealt with accordingly.
Chinggis Khan died in 1227, on campaign in China. He
was followed as Great Khan by his second son, Ogodei
(r. 1229-41), under whose rule the empire continued to
expand. In China the Jin Empire was eliminated in 1234, and
war began with the southern Song. In the Middle East all of
Iran and the Caucasus were subjugated in the 1230s, and
most of Anatolia followed in 1243. The most impressive cam-
paigns, however, were those in Russia and then eastern
Europe, where total victories were secured in April 1241 at
Liegnitz (Legnica) and Pest (Budapest) (map 2).
The successor khanates
In the aftermath of the death of the fourth Great Khan -
Mongke, a grandson of Chinggis Khan - the Mongol Empire
effectively split up into a number of successor states. In China
and the Mongolian heartland, Qubilai (Kublai) - a brother of
Mongke (d. 1294) - established the Yuan dynasty, and had
conquered all of China by 1279. This conquest was accom-
panied by much destruction, particularly in the north, but
not all aspects of Mongol rule were negative. Trade appears
to have flourished and the country was united for the first
time in centuries. From West Asia there was an influx of cul-
tural influences in such areas as medicine, mathematics and
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astronomy. Mongol rule lasted in China until a series of
popular uprisings in the 1360s, from which emerged the first
Ming emperor - at which point large numbers of Mongols
left China for the steppe.
In Central Asia the Khanate of Chaghatai - Chinggis
Khan's third son - gradually coalesced under his descen-
dants, while further to the west the so-called Golden Horde,
ruled by the descendants of Jochi, Chinggis's fourth son,
evolved. Around 1260 there arose in Iran an additional
Mongol state known as the Ilkhanate, from the title Ilkhan
("subject ruler") by which the rulers were known. This state
was founded by Ilulegu, the brother of Mongke and Qubilai,
who conquered Baghdad in 1258 and brought to an end the
Abbasid Caliphate which had existed for over 500 years.
Hulegu's troops were stopped at Ayn Jalut in northern
Palestine in 1260 by the Mamluks of Egypt {pages 88-89),
and the border between the two states was stabilized along
the Euphrates - though the war between them, at times
intense, lasted until 1320. The Ilkhans, along with their
subjects, converted to Islam around the beginning of the
14th century, leading to large-scale patronage of Islamic
institutions. In Iran, as on the steppe to the north, the
Mongols appear to have been absorbed by a larger nomadic
Turkish population, whose size greatly increased during the
period of Mongol domination.
In the late 14th century the Turkified and Muslim
descendants of the Mongol tribesmen in Transoxania
gathered around Timur-leng (Tamerlane), who created an
empire stretching from Central Asia to western Iran
(map 4). The empire did not survive his death in 1405 as
he had failed to set up an efficient administration and made
no serious provision for his succession.
The legacy of the Mongol Empire
Looking at the history of the Mongol Empire as a whole -
and without belittling the destructive effects of their
conquests - one clear beneficial outcome can be seen: for
the first time in history, most of Asia was under one rule,
enabling the transfer of merchandise, ideas and other cul-
tural elements. This legacy was to continue long after the
demise of the united Mongol state in 1260.
"
4 Aru subjugated by Timur-leng 1 340-1 40S
Area under TimuiLeng's urlrol 1405
yri
▲ Among the successor states of the
Mongol Empire, the Khanate of Chaghatai
and the Golden Horde had much in
common: in both there were large
permanently settled areas controlled by
nomads living on the steppe. The relatively
small number of Mongols, both elite and
commoners, were gradually absorbed by
the much larger Turkish tribal population,
adopting Turkic languages while
maintaining aspects of Mongol identity and
culture. Around the same time they
converted to Islam, although there were
those who resisted the abandonment of
traditional Mongol shamanism.
< Timur-leng's campaigns contributed
to the collapse of the Golden Horde in
around 1400. In its place a number of
smaller hordes arose, which were
gradually absorbed by the growing
Russian state of Muscovy. The Tatar,
Uzbek and Kazakh peoples were to
emerge from the nomadic populations
controlled by the Horde, the last two
moving eastwards around 1 500 to their
current locations.
© SLAVIC STATES 400-100(1 pages 70-71 © EAST ASIA 907-1600 pages 8(>-H7 © CHINA 1,168-1800 pages 138-39 © RUSSIA 1462-1795 pages 148-49
THE ECONOMY OF EUROPE
950-1300
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▲ During the central part of the Middle
Ages, Europe moved decisively away from
locally self-sufficient, "closed" economies.
Trade was no longer limited to transporting
relatively small quantifies of high-value
luxury items destined for consumption by a
rich and privileged elite, but came instead to
encompass a wide range of agricultural and
manufactured goods.
Between about 950 and 1300 the European economy
was transformed (map 1). The motors of economic
growth were a growing population, a developing
market structure, increasing regional and subregional
specialization and growing monetarization, based partly on
the discovery of major new silver mines and partly on the
development of commercial instruments (such as bills of
exchange and letters of credit) that allowed monetary trans-
actions to extend beyond the immediate availability of coin.
Rural and urban growth
The clearest evidence that the European population
increased comes from the growing number of settlements of
all types throughout the continent. Many mark the opening
up of previously uncultivated land for agriculture: place-
names and archaeology tell a story of forests cut back,
marshes drained and former pasture lands brought under
the plough (map 2). New markets also appeared and old
towns expanded, with urban growth evidenced by new
parishes, larger circuits of walls and new suburbs (map 3).
In France, Germany, Italy and England local secular and
ecclesiastical lords played decisive roles in the creation of
a hierarchy of new market towns. Founding a market town
not only opened the prospect of a new source of revenue; it
also made it possible for the lord either to take payments in
kind and sell them on the market for cash, or to demand the
payment of rents and dues in coin, which peasant producers
could now obtain by entering the market themselves.
Markets encouraged specialization at all levels, and
urban craftsmen produced a growing volume of goods for
the market, confident that they could obtain food and cloth-
ing from the same source. Similarly, farmers aimed less at
self-sufficiency and more at the production of cash crops
such as grain, grapes or wool.
Regions and sub-regions also started to specialize. By the
beginning of the 12th century Flanders had become a cloth
economy, its towns dependent on wool from England, grain
and wine from the lie de France and the Rhineland, and on
access to customers. Indeed the cloth industry had made
Flanders the richest, most densely populated and urbanized
region of northern Europe. By the 13th century areas of spe-
cialist production included the wine trade in Gascony; grain
in Sicily, southern Italy and eastern Europe; salt in the Bay
of Biscay, the Alps, the west of England, Saxony and
Languedoc; timber and fish in Scandinavia and the Baltic;
fur in Russia; iron in Sweden, Westphalia and the Basque
country; metalworking in the Rhineland; and cheese in
eastern England, Holland and southern Poland (map 1).
Mediterranean commerce
Italian merchants reached Flanders as early as the begin-
ning of the 12th century, but at this date links between
northern Europe and the Mediterranean were still fairly
limited and it is more realistic to think in terms of European
economies rather than an integrated whole. While the
wealth and developing urban culture that characterized
southern France, Catalonia and above all northern Italy was
based partly on the same pattern of population growth and
rural development occurring in Europe north of the Alps,
the southern economies also benefited from access to the
flourishing commercial world of the Mediterranean (map 4).
The documents of the Cairo Geniza, an extraordinary
Jewish archive amassed from the 11th century onwards,
vividly illustrate the growing involvement of Latin mer-
chants, especially Italians, in Mediterranean commerce.
From the mid-1 lth century their activities were increas-
ingly backed by force, and during the 12th century Muslim,
Jewish and Greek shipping and much of their trade were all
T More intensive agricultural regimes
formed the backbone of economic
expansion in Europe, providing sufficient
surpluses in basic foodstuffs to feed the
growing number of specialist produces
offering their goods in exchange for the
food produced by the peasantry. The
development of the Chartres region, with
its pattern of forest clearance and the
subjugation of the landscape, is typical.
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
hut driven from [hi; Mediterranean Sea. When the Spanish
Muslim scholar Mm .lubayr went on a pilgrimage to Mecca
in 1183-85 he travelled entirely on Ccnoese ships, apart
from the small coaster which took him across the Strait of
Gibraltar and the boat in which lie crossed the Red Sea.
Between the 11th and 1,1th centuries a number of
important developments took place in the Mediterranean
region: Pisa and ( lenoa took over Corsica and Sardinia in
1015; the Normans conquered southern Italy and Sicily
(secure by 1070), and Malta in 1091; the Crusader States
were established in Syria and Palestine after 1099 (pages
94-95); Cyprus was conquered in 119] by Richard 1 of
England (who then gave the island to (luy of Lusignan,
titular King of Jerusalem ); a Venetian empire was created in
the Aegean after 121)4; and the Balearies, Valencia and
Murcia were recaptured from the Muslims by 124,1 {map 4).
As a result the Latin slates had complete control of the
Mediterranean trunk routes by the mid- 1,1th century.
Trading networks were established that would continue to
flourish for centuries to come.
Pan of what passed along these routes was a trade in
foodstuffs, hulk raw materials and textiles. Italian, French
and Spanish merchants not only took European goods to
North Africa, Egypt and the Byzantine world, but also
played an increasingly dominant role in the internal trade of
these societies. Profits from this involvement brought
enough Islamic gold to Italy to enable Genoa and Florence
in 1252. and then Venice in 1284. to strike a regular gold
coinage for the first time in Latin Europe since the Nth
century. However, the big profits of Mediterranean trade
were to be made in the luxuries for which the West was
offering a rapidly expanding market - the spices, silks
dyestnffs and perfumes of the East - and here the balance
was heavily in favour of Muslim sellers. To buy on the
Egyptian markets, Latin merchants needed large supplies of
coin and bullion.
3 Urban growth across Europe
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TlIK ROLL OF SILVER
A crucial development was the opening up from the 1 IWts
of new European silver mines, of which the most important
were in Germany. Interregional trade in northern Europe
brought large quantities of German silver into the ha ruts of
Flemish, French, Rhenish and English merchants who then
paid silver to southern merchants, mostly kalians, in
exchange for goods from the East.
The linchpin of the new trans-Alpine economy was the
Champagne fairs, held at Troyes, Bar-sur-Auhe, Lagny and
Provins, where the powerful counts of Champagne could
guarantee security. These new ties brought a large amount
of silver to the south - so large in fact that during the second
half of the 12th century the Provins denier (the coinage of
Champagne) became the standard coin for commercial pay-
ments in northern and central Italy. They also brought
Mediterranean commercial techniques and firms of Italian
bankers to the north. With the introduction of transferable
bills of exchange, the European economy was no longer
limited by the availability of precious metal. Bankers were
willing to offer enormous credit facilities to reliable clients,
so that the rulers of the major European states were now
given the means to operate on an entirely new scale.
A Expansion in sectors af ihe European
economy not geared lo load or eduction is
Willingly demonslioleo' in ihe phenomenon
ol urban growth. Town and cities provided
monufucturinig [nitres and markers lor
long-distance Irade. whether interregional
or international. They also serviced iheir
local agricultural economies, providing ihe
markers and goods ihot made possible local
soecioliitilion and exchange
▼ Ihe era ol the crusades was also one ol
growing Mediterranean commerce.
European traders took some hurries and
foodstuffs eosl, but above al they carried
silver coins wilh which la purdtaw the
valuable dyes and spices that came ham
India ond the Far East
© FRANKISH KINGDOMS 200-900 pages 74-75 © EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7
URBAN COMMUNITIES IN WESTERN EUROPE
1000-1500
T In the 1 4th century oil the towns in the
two urban clusters that had developed in
northern Italy and northern France and
Flanders were to some degree self-
governing, although only Venice asserted
absolute freedom from outside authority.
After the collapse of the Roman Empire at the end of
the 4th century, towns in Europe had tended to
decrease in size, complexity and autonomy, particu-
larly within Latin Christendom. In 1000 Europe's five
largest towns - Constantinople, Cordoba, Seville, Palermo
and Kiev - were outside this area. However, by 1500 the
pattern of urban development in Europe had undergone
great changes: Constantinople was still one of the five
largest towns, but the other four were now Paris, Milan,
Venice and Naples. At this time around 70 per cent of the
estimated 80 million inhabitants of Europe lived in the
countryside, with a further 20 per cent in small market
towns. Just three million people lived in the hundred or so
towns of at least 10,000 inhabitants, but they represented a
social, economic, cultural and political force of far greater
importance than their number might suggest.
During the Middle Ages urban enterprise came to set the
pace of social and cultural development in western Europe.
By 1300, under the impulses of the new international
economy of trade, finance and industry (pages 100-1 ), two
main clusters of towns had developed: one in northern Italy,
the other in northern France and Flanders, with London
and Cologne in close proximity (map 1).
The Italian communes
Between 1050 and 1150 Italian towns from the Alps as far
south as Rome were controlled by communal regimes made
up of local men of property and high status. The communes
achieved power partly by violent assertion but also by the
formation of "peace associations", which had the declared
aim of bringing peace and order to a locality. Once in
charge, the communes directed their energies towards
mastering the immediately surrounding territory (contado)
- vital for maintaining food supplies and communications.
In the later 12th and 13th centuries their local control was
repeatedly challenged by the Staufen emperors, rulers of the
Holy Roman Empire (pages 90-91 ).
The communes ultimately emerged victorious, but the
strain of warfare, together with increasing social tensions
generated by large-scale immigration from the countryside,
frequently fuelled recurrent factional conflicts. This resulted
in the subversion of communal government and the seizure
of power by partisan cliques under so-called signori, such
as the Visconti in Milan (dukes from 1395) or the Este
family in Modena and Ferrara (dukes from 1452) (map 2).
Towns in northwest Europe
In northwest Europe the forms of town government varied.
Here too, from around 1100, communes were set up by local
revolt, or by local lords granting jurisdictional privilege.
Paris and London, however, developed as royal residences
and capitals of kingdoms, while the towns of the Low
Countries, although prone to turbulence, remained within
the framework of territorial principalities. The county of
Flanders was divided into four territorial-jurisdictional
sectors known as the "Four Members", three of which were
dominated by the towns of Ghent, Bruges and Ypres. Much
of the business of government was transacted not by the
count's officials, but in the regular meetings of representa-
tives of the Four Members.
By the 1460s, 36 per cent of the population of Flanders
were town dwellers, half of them resident in the three big
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
► From the early 14th century only a few
communes in Italy escaped princely control
- notably Venice, intermittently Genoa and
Lucca, and Florence before the Medici coup
of 1 434. Much of their internal organiz-
ation was grounded in occupational guilds
which exercised protectionist control of
local vested interests.
towns, half in the 49 smaller towns (map 3). This demo-
graphic pattern was even more pronounced in Holland,
where 45 per cent lived in towns but no single town
exceeded 16,000 inhabitants.
The growth of urban autonomy in Germany
By the 15th century urban development in Germany -
although gathering force later than in some other regions -
had produced some 35 communities with over 2,000 inhab-
itants and around 3,000 with some sort of recognized town
status. About 50 of these were free cities under no princely
jurisdiction. Unlike the Italian communes, some of which
controlled whole regions, the German communities were
more tightly focused on their urban centres; even Metz, one
of the largest, held jurisdiction over only 250 surrounding
villages. Also unlike their Italian counterparts, they rarely
engaged in warfare. Even after trade guilds had occasionally
asserted themselves forcefully in the 14th and 15th cen-
turies, the towns remained under the control of a small
number of noble families - 42 in Nuremberg, for example,
and 76 in Frankfurt in around 1500.
By this date the German towns were enjoying a golden
age of economic growth and cultural vitality - a vitality that
had been a feature of European urban society since the 12th
century. Among its achievements had been the Gothic
architectural style of church building; secular buildings of
equivalent scale, such as the town halls of Florence and
Bruges; the spread of printing presses from the Rhineland
to over 200 towns throughout Latin Christendom between
1450 and 1500; the "civic humanism" of post-communal
Italy; and the "scholastic humanism" fostered by the
foundation of some 80 universities - five by 1200, a further
14 by 1300, 26 in the 14th century, and 35 in the 15th
century (pages 134-35).
The Early Renaissance
The great town halls of communal Italy were built mainly
between 1260 and 1330 - around the lifetime of the civic-
minded vernacular poet Dante (1265-1321), and of his
fellow Florentine, Giotto (1266-1337), whose painting came
to be seen as marking the beginning of a new sense of space
and form. Over the following century Florence continued to
loom especially large in the visual arts, with architecture
and sculpture as well as painting coming to express a
"classical" ideal inspired by the Graeco-Roman past.
Florence also produced writers such as Boccaccio
(1313-75), whose vernacular poems and prose rapidly
influenced French and English writing, and Petrarch
(1304-74), whose humanist Latin writings became forma-
tive in the education of the elite throughout Latin
Christendom in the course of the 15th century.
The transmission of style, however, was not all one way.
The "new art" of the painters and musicians of the towns of
the Low Countries was much in demand in 15th-century
Italy, and in 1500 artists and writers were, literally, citizens
of a world of Renaissance culture. The career of the artist
Dtirer (1471-1528) moved between his native Nuremberg,
Venice and Antwerp, while the humanist writer Erasmus
(1469-1536) travelled constantly between Gouda, Deventer,
Paris, London, Bologna, Rome, Leuven, Freiburg and Basel.
Their achievement, in their own lifetimes, of Europe-wide
fame beyond the span of their personal travels was itself an
early product of the general spread of three urban inven-
tions: the woodcut, the engraving and the printed book.
► By 1 500 some 34 per cent of the
population of the Low Countries lived in
towns - an urban density equalled only in
parts of northern Italy. Despite the
protection of local interests by the
occupational guilds, there was consider-
able economic and cultural exchange
between towns - so much so that Antwerp
had become the leading commercial and
cultural centre of western Europe.
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© THE ECONOMY OF EUROPE 950-1300 piiges 100-1 © EUROPEAN URBANIZATION 1500-1800 pages 132-33
CRISIS IN EUROPE AND ASIA
1330-52
► The merchonts' "Silk Roods", which
doubled as militory routes for invaders and
mercenaries, and linked up with the
seaways of the Indian Ocean and the Black
and Mediterranean seas, were also
highways lor infection with the plague.
Medieval international travel was slow and
companionable: wayfarers carried huge
quantities of supplies; they utilized ports,
campsites, caravanserais and storehouses
that were infested with black rats whose
fleas carried the plague. They also dealt
extensively in the bales of cloth which so
often harboured fleaborne infection.
► Part of the response of western European
culture to the plague was to personify death
via various visual media. The fame macabre
entered court entertainment, and artists and
sculptors experimented with the grisly
themes of the cadaver and the skull. This
1 Sth-century fresco from the Italian School,
entitled The Triumph of Death, H a direct
descendant of the genre spawned by the
terrifying disease a century earlier.
In the 14th century the "Old World" may have lost
between a quarter and half of its population as a result of
pandemic plague. The infective agent or plague bacillus
was, and is, endemic to the ecology of certain remote areas
of Asia. At times environmental factors or simple mutation
can promote a dramatic rise in the numbers of the rodent
fleas which are the plague's usual carriers. Facilities for
transport and travel can then promote widespread person-
to-person infection and turn an isolated outbreak of bubonic
plague into an epidemic and ultimately a pandemic -
without the intervention of rat or flea.
The "Black Death" of the 14th-century was not the first
visitation of plague to the Middle East or to Europe. The
Byzantine historian Procopius gave a chillingly precise
account of the symptoms and progress of the disease as it
struck the Persian and Byzantine empires in the 540s. This
plague reached Britain in 546 and Ireland in 552, and its
aftershocks extended late into the 7th century.
The Black Death invades Europe
The medieval pandemics of the 6th and 14th centuries were
the unpredicted side-effects of expanding horizons and
increasing contact between East and West (map 1). The
second scourge of the plague reached East Asia in the early
1330s and West Asia less than a decade later.
This time it may well have hit an already debilitated
population. A run of rainy years and poor harvests in much
of mid- 1340s Europe had lowered resistance and led to the
widespread consumption of suspect food supplies. Typically
the plague was at its most virulent in congested urban areas,
and dedicated professionals such as doctors and priests suf-
fered disproportionately. Yet there were always survivors -
as many as a quarter of sufferers may have lived through an
attack of plague to become invested with an awe-inspiring
immunity - and there were regions, even towns, that went
largely unscathed (map 2).
While much plague history is anecdotal and local, such
details can be just as telling as the massive mortality esti-
mates. Pestilence halted work on the cathedral of Siena in
Italy, and the building is still truncated today. The popula-
tion of the Oxfordshire village of Tusmore in England was
wiped out in 1348 and never restored. There were dramatic
local responses to stress, such as episodes of penitential
flagellation and vicious outbursts of scapegoating as vulner-
able groups in society, notably the Jews, were targeted as
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
the bringers of death. Such incidents were not, of course,
unknown outside the plague years.
Effects of the Black Death
The questions whether or to what extent the 14th century
pandemic changed the course of world history can only be
the subject of conjecture. In China, which suffered the first
and perhaps the most serious wave of devastation, demo-
graphic collapse may have fostered the consensus that the
ruling Mongol or Yuan dynasty had lost the "mandate of
heaven". The Yuan were ousted in 1368 in favour of an
indigenous Chinese dynasty, the Ming. In the West, the loss
of manpower to pestilence may have left a declining
Constantinople too weak to prevent Ottoman incursions
into Europe: from 1354 there were Ottoman victories in the
Balkans which reached a peak at Kosovo (1389) and esta-
blished a lasting Muslim government in the midst of
Orthodox Christendom. West Asia certainly saw a dramatic
reduction in the population of its big Islamic cities and a
reversion to nomadism outside them. Perhaps the effects of
the plague facilitated a last Mongol invasion by the armies of
Timur-leng (1369-1405), who briefly redrew the political
map from Afghanistan to the Mediterranean (pages 98-99).
However, no western European states or societies col-
lapsed in the wake of the plague. Great cities like Venice
experienced short-lived administrative dislocation and then
recovered. Social tensions were exacerbated as surviving
craftsmen, labourers and servants now had the advantage
of scarcity and might resist the demands of lords, masters
or officialdom. There was an increase in the Mediterranean
slave trade as one solution to the labour shortage.
There was also a demographic shift. Thousands of set-
tlements in agricultural western Europe were abandoned in
the two centuries that followed the population peak of the
early 14th century. Very few of these "lost villages" were
specifically eliminated by the plague or its accompanying
panic, but in the aftermath of the plague, survivors from the
fens and moorlands of the agricultural margins could move
(with the encouragement of landowners who needed their
labour) into the best of the farming land.
The "time of pestilence" was also a time of resilience.
Survivors dutifully buried their dead and coped with the
paperwork of mortality, probate and the ricocheting
finances of societies which had lost, on average, a third of
their taxpayers. The 14th century had none of the universal
expectation of population growth and longevity which char-
acterizes the modern era. Life expectancy was less than half
that of today and even those who survived the plague years
had a very limited chance of reaching 70. Eyewitness
accounts of the plague years describe a society whose
preachers used memento mori ("remember you must die")
as a watchword and regularly portrayed earthly existence
as a vale of tears. The plague, which served to underline this
concept, was easily incorporated into Christian theological
debate; it is also likely to have reinforced Islamic fatalism
and possibly the cyclical view of history and society set out
in the writings of the philosopher Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406).
Meanwhile, mainstream Western culture took refuge in
the incorporation of mortality into art and personified death
as a figure in popular stories and morality plays. Modern
communicators still draw on this plague-time imagery of
mortality to convey an apocalyptic warning.
▼ Hie plague reached East Asia in the mid-
1 330s and West Asia a decade later. The
Crimean port of Kaffa was an important
flashpoint for the transmission of the plague
to Anatolia, the Levant and Europe. Kaffa
was a Genoese trading base which in 1 347
was under attack from the Kipchak Turks, in
whose ranks the plague was raging. Ma's
policy of "business as usual" in a corpse-
strewn environment resulted in the flight of
its business partners and they took the
infection with them: a fleet of Genoese
galleys from Kaffa carried the plague to
Messina in Sicily and then, by January
1 348, to Genoa itself. Genoa's commercial
rivals Pisa and Venice succumbed shortly
afterwards, and the pestilence went on to
devastate most of Europe until it had
reached Scandinavia via the Hanseatic
seaways by 1350.
2 The spread of the Black
Duth in Europe
Approximate extent of oreo learhnd >
Bluk Dm* m:
■ 134? CH 1350
1 1KB ~2 1351
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© THE ECONOMY OF EUROPE 950-1300 pages 100-1 O EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7
EUROPE
1350-1500
The period 1350-1500 was one of major transition in
the history of Europe. Constant warfare reshaped the
boundaries of kingdoms and other political entities
(map 1), while the loss of over a third of the population as
a result of the Black Death of 1347-52 (pages 104-5)
generated economic, social and political change. It was also
a period of crisis in the Church, as papal schism let loose
challenges to the old order of Latin Christendom.
1 lusoptc 1400
Boundary cf fa Hc*c tan drqiira
| HatsbuiQ, I'" ritai ■::'.
I Lwemboutg ^nfflyin
i i ravin affiragan
Z} Urainotymuiaw J] (Women jiNroti
' Ik cil Kioto 1 385/* * Nlmn pupulnr dribdkn
| {Mvmn Empire
A In the wake of the Black Death there
was an outbreak of popular revolts across
Europe. The sudden, dramatic fall in the
population resulted in the contraction of the
labour force and a rise in wages. However,
while living standards improved, there was
an increase in the incidence of warfare -
leading to higher taxation and social unrest.
► In 1328 Philip of Valois was able to
assume the French crown by right of descent
through the male line, but he was
challenged by Edward III of England,
descended more directly from the last
Capetians through his mother. In 1 337
Philip confiscated the Plantagenet lordships
in France (Gascony and Ponthieu); Edward's
response in 1 340 was to adopt the title of
"King of France". The resulting war, an
intermittent series of conflicts, was as much
a French civil war as an Anglo-French
contest. By 1453 the English had been
expelled from all of France except Calais,
and the Valois were in the process of
achieving effective authority in France.
~r
2 The Hundred Yeari War 1 337-1453
| ftortogsifl teuton I- 1 300
_} nan^criiniUyiHognarilnfelioMiifari 1340
I/'/ , ) Area rBcugnizing RoifloyBiet Mwphip HZ0-3B
A tonjoi hvarrte wth dom
Western and central Europe
From 1337 much of western Europe became the arena for a
struggle between the the Valois princes and the Plantagenet
kings of England for the succession to the Capetian kingship
of France. The resulting Hundred Years War (map 2) gave
rise to a network of alliances linking the Valois to Scotland
and Castile, the Plantagenets to Portugal, and both at dif-
ferent times to the Wittelsbach and Luxembourg dynasties
of the Holy Roman Empire. Such links helped to sustain
Scotland's independence from England. They also stimu-
lated the emergence of a more powerful Burgundy which
brought together the territorial principalities of the Low
Countries - first, in the 1360s, as a Valois satellite, then as
a Plantagenet ally (1419-35 and 1468-77), and finally as a
Habsburg inheritance.
The Hundred Years War network of alliances figured
significantly in the warfare in the fberian Peninsula which
resulted in the establishment of the Trastamara dynasty in
Castile in 1369 and the Aviz dynasty in Portugal in 1385. A
century later, between 1474 and 1479, two autonomous
monarchies emerged whose expansionist ambitions found
expression, in the case of Portugal, in maritime expeditions
along the coast of Africa, and, in the case of Castile and
Aragon, in the conquest of Muslim Granada (1480-92).
Italy developed as an essentially self-contained political
complex, with Milan, Venice and Florence expanding into
regional territorial states by the mid-15th century. In the
south, the Trastamaran Alfonso V of Aragon added the
kingdom of Naples to his existing possession of Sicily in
1442, after conflict with a Valois claimant. This was followed
half a century later by a renewed Valois-Trastamara struggle
in the post-1494 wars which turned Italy into the battle-
ground of Europe (pages 146-47). In the meantime, Naples
along with Milan, Venice, Florence and the Papacy sought
intermittently after 1455 to function as a league to secure
"the concert of Italy" from outside intervention.
Germany and the Holy Roman Empire (pages 90-91),
which were far less affected by large-scale warfare than
other areas, came to function as a network of princely and
urban local regimes, with relatively few moments of wide-
spread disruption after the 1340s. The institution of elective
kingship proved largely cohesive and peaceful, and the
imperial title passed in virtually hereditary succession from
the House of Luxembourg to the Habsburgs in 1438.
Eastern and northern Europe
In east central Europe the position of the Luxembourgs and
Habsburgs as rulers of Bohemia (from 1310) and Hungary
(from 1387) was intermittently challenged by the rise of the
Lithuanian Jagiellon dynasty. To their rule of the Polish-
Lithuanian commonwealth the Jagiellon dynasty added the
kingship of Bohemia (1471-1526) and Hungary (1440-44
and 1490-1526). In the Baltic, attempts to unite the three
kingships of Denmark, Norway and Sweden were briefly
successful with the creation in 1397 of the Union of Kalmar.
Nonetheless, from 1448 the Oldenburg dynasty maintained
its control in Denmark and most of the western Norse world
from Norway to Iceland. Flanking Latin Christendom, the
Muslim Ottoman Empire (pages 96-97) and the Orthodox
Christian Russian Empire (pages 148-49) emerged.
Religious developments
In 1309 the French Pope Clement V had taken up residence
in Avignon. The monarchical style of the Papacy had
reached its peak when in 1378, shortly after its return to
Rome, a disputed papal election caused the Church to split
and two rival popes - based in Avignon and Rome - to
operate simultaneously (map J). This remained the situa-
tion until 1417, when the General Council at Constance
(1414-18) secured the election of Pope Martin V.
At the same time parts of Europe were marked by
dissent from established theological doctrine and by anti-
clerical criticism. In England the Lollards, influenced by
John Wyeliffe, made no effective headway. However, in
Bohemia the Hussite movement, launched by John Hus,
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PARI 2
developed into a revolutionary challenge to the established
order. In 1415 IIus was burned at the stake for heresy, an
event that provoked the Hussite Wars against the Holy
Roman Emperor. The Hussites achieved dramatic military
victories in the 1420s, but their theological and political
impact was contained after peace was agreed in 1434-36.
A great challenge to the Papacy came from the Goneiliar
movement. This developed into a constitutional struggle
between reformist clergy seeking to use the church coun-
cils (such as that at Constance) to reduce the authority of
the Pope, and the bid by the Papacy to reassert the pre-1378
order of church government. The Conciliarists eventually
had to acknowledge defeat in 1449, the preference of lay
rulers for a monarchical papal ideology proving decisive.
The effects of the Black Death
The dramatic fall in population during the Black Death led
to severe disruption of agricultural and industrial produc-
tion and trade (map 4). It also led to smaller and more
professional armies, although there was an increase in the
incidence of warfare, which in turn induced social tension
and revolts (among them the Jacquerie Revolt in northern
France in 1358, the Peasants' Revolt in England in 1381,
and a wave of urban revolts in northwest Europe, the Baltic
region and Italy around 1375-85). The levy of war taxation,
often the trigger of such unrest, was of fundamental impor-
tance in the development of representative institutions,
which in the form of parliaments or "Estates" became the
vehicle for a heightened sense of the political community
throughout Europe.
>^
3 The Church during the Great Schism 1378-141 7
§J§^ vt-ii-i-LiI HjwteartMrtf ~^\ Awffi rKogm/ina Sametosed Cope
^^ C uniru ad Ualliirrf Ktrvfly ] Areos 'KogMmg Avignairbtsfld Pops
< The initial cause of the Great Schism was
a disputed papal election in 1 378. It lasted
for almost 40 years (1 378-1 417) because
lay political groups exploited the situation,
rapidly aligning themselves behind the rival
claimants to papal office. Thus Valois France
and its allies in Scotland and Castile
recognized the Pope resident (from 1379)
in Avignon, while England and Portugal as
well as most parts of the Holy Roman
Empire and northern and eastern Europe
recognized the Pope resident in Rome.
T Between about 1 370 and 1 500 the rural
world was marked by depressed grain
prices, partly offset by increasing
diversification from arable into pasture
farming and horticulture. With the
contraction of the labour force, wages rose
and sustained the demand for a wide range
of manufactured and other commodities,
both staples and luxuries. The result was a
more buoyant economy in the towns and
the fostering of technological innovation in,
for example, silk weaving, printing and
metallurgical processes.
© FRANCE. SPAIN AND ENGLAND 900-1300 pages 92-93 © ECONOMY OF EUROPE 950-1300 pages 100-1 © EUROPEAN STATES 1500-1600 pages 146-47
CULTURES IN NORTH AMERICA
500-1500
T Among the pueblos built in the southwest
were a group in Choco Canyon. These may
have housed members of the elite, or been
craft and redistribution centres, or
communal religious centres occupied only on
ceremonial occasions. Choco Canyon was
connected to towns and villages several
hundred kilometres away by a network of
wide, straight roads (used only by travellers
on foot, as there were neither wheeled
vehicles nor pack animals). Trade was well
developed, linking the early pueblo peoples
with the north, the Pacific coast and
Mesoamerica, from where they obtained
copper bells and live scarlet macaws prized
for their feathers. In exchange they
provided the Mexicans with turquoise mined
in the region immediately to the south of
the Sangre de Cristo Mountains.
North America in the 6th century was home to many
different cultural traditions. Farming communities,
growing native or introduced crops, were established
in some parts of the south. Elsewhere, richly diverse ways of
life were based on natural resources.
The southwest
Between 200 and 900 settled communities developed in the
American southwest (map 1), growing crops (especially
maize, squash and beans) introduced from Mesoamerica.
These communities also began to make pottery to supple-
ment their traditional basket containers. Semi-subterranean
houses were constructed. Plazas, mounds and ballcourts
reminiscent of those of Mesoamerica appeared in the
Hohokam area by 600, at settlements such as Snaketown;
these public spaces were probably the focus of ceremonial
and ritual activities. Smaller villages clustered around the
main centres, which are thought to have been the homes of
chiefs controlling the networks of irrigation canals that made
two annual crops possible in this arid region.
Irrigation was also vitally important to the Anasazi and
Mogollon peoples in the similarly arid areas to the north and
east of Hohokam. Around 700 in the Anasazi area and 1000
among the Mogollon, villages of semi-subterranean houses
gave way to villages built above ground but containing a
subterranean ceremonial structure (kiva). These developed
into larger and more elaborate complexes of adjoining
rooms, called pueblos by the Spanish in the 16th century.
Among the best known is Pueblo Bonito (map 2). Here a
massive plaza containing two large kivas was surrounded by
a semi-circular, five-storey, tiered complex of some 200
rooms and smaller kivas, housing up to 1,200 people.
Further north the pueblos of the Mesa Verde region had
developed along different architectural lines. At first situated
on plateaus, by 1150 most were constructed on natural or
artificial platforms on the face of canyon cliffs, such as Cliff
Palace. These cliff-side villages, many dominated by watch-
towers, were probably designed for defence and reflect
deteriorating environmental conditions at the time.
A major shift in trade patterns took place around the
14th century, when it appears that the Mogollon village of
Casas Grandes was taken over by Mexican pochtecas
(merchants). It grew into a town and became a trade and
craft production centre, surrounded by a network of roads
and forts, directly controlling the turquoise sources. Mexican
architecture now appeared and sophisticated irrigation
systems were constructed.
In other areas favourable climatic and environmental
conditions had promoted the spread of farming into marginal
regions in preceding centuries, but by the later 13th century
conditions were deteriorating. There was widespread
drought and many sites were abandoned, their inhabitants
moving into more fertile areas, particularly along the banks
of rivers. In the 1450s Apache and Navajo hunters began to
make raids on the fringes of the area, and in 1528 a Spanish
expedition signalled future domination by Europeans.
The southeast
By about 400 the extensive exchange networks of the
Hopewell people (pages 24-25) were in decline and funer-
ary moundbuilding was going out of fashion in all but the
southern regions of the southeast. However, by 800 the intro-
duction of maize, later supplemented by beans, allowed an
increased reliance on agriculture, but concentrated settle-
ment on the easily cultivated river floodplains (map 3). As
before, communities were linked by a long-distance trade
network. Many were autonomous small chiefdoms but in
some areas a hierarchy developed, with subordinate chief-
doms answerable to a centralized authority operating from
a major centre. The largest town in this emerging mosaic of
Mississippian chiefdoms was Cahokia, a powerful and pros-
perous centre c. 1050-1250, which housed perhaps 30,000
people in dwellings clustered around the palisaded centre
with its plaza and huge mounds.
Other Native Americans
From 800, horticulture based on beans, squash and maize
spread through the mid- and northeast (map 4). Although
hunting continued to be important, the increased reliance on
agriculture encouraged settlement in semi-permanent villages.
By the time the Europeans arrived in North America in the
16th century, the northeast was a patchwork of nations
settled in small territories, constantly at war but also trading
with one another. Later some settled their differences, uniting
into the Iroquois Confederacy which became involved in the
wars between rival European powers in the region.
The Great Plains had been home for thousands of years
to small groups of buffalo (bison) hunters and small-scale
hortieulturalists. The introduction of the bow and arrow may
have increased hunting efficiency and, possibly for this
reason, several peoples moved onto the Great Plains from
the surrounding areas. After about 900, colonists from the
Mississippian cultures brought maize cultivation to the
Missouri region of the Great Plains. The stockades and moats
surrounding their settlements, along with evidence of
massacres and scalpings, indicate that these groups were
constantly at war.
Further west, in the Great Basin, hunter-gatherer groups
continued their long-standing nomadic way of life (map 5)
until it was destroyed by white settlers. Under influence from
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
V Mississiapinn lawns were the ceremonial
cenlces for their surraonding communities,
participating a! this time in the religjuus
tradition bom m the "Southern Cull".
Symbolic nclefucls characteristic of this cull
- such as coppec pendants, seoshelk oral
Figurines Lwonng distinctive designs
I including snakes, hands and weeping fates)
- wece round al centres throughout the
Misshsippifln call area. Mounds in the hear I
el these centres were crowned by lemples
and sometimes the bouses of Ihe elite.
the Anasazi of the southwest, the Fremont - ;i number of
culturally-related groups who practised horticulture and
made distinctive figurines and other artefacts - flourished
from around 5(H) until the late 13th century, when they were
wiped nut hy droughts. Around 145(1 Apache and Navajo
from the far northwest reached the area and. after contact
with the Spanish, took up horse-breeding and hunting cm the
western (J re: it Plains.
The Pacific coast, with its wealth of game, wild plants and
fish, enabled communities to list* in villages all year round.
The general abundance, coupled with periodic shortages, led
to a stratified society: chiefs gained prestige by providing
3 MOI/NDBUIIDERSOI
the Mississippi
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\ Middle MraraipaHTi
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lavish feasts and gift- giving displays, whieh might involve the
deliberate destruction of valued objects (the "potlatch
system"). Shells were used by some groups as a medium of
exchange, and slave-raiding was also widespread. Expert
woodearvers, these coastal groups fashioned totem poles anil
extravagantly decorated houses and artefacts. A detailed
insight into their life comes from Ozettc, a village partly
covered hy a mudslide around 1550 (and thus preserved for
posterity): here wooden houses and beautifully made
wootlen tools, nets and other objects were found, including a
decorated wooden replica of a whale's fin.
In the far north, limit communities spread northwards
anil eastwards through the Arctic. This was made possible
by a number of innovations that improved adaptation to
life in extreme cold: igloos, snowshoes, snow goggles, dog
sledges, kayaks and the larger umiaks, as well as harpoons
capable of killing sea mammals as large as whales. During the
warmer temperatures of the period from around 900 to
1300, the lnuit colonized Greenland, where they came into
contact and sometimes conflict with the Vikings, who estab-
lished a toehold there and on Newfoundland between 982
and l400(p(«;cs7«-79).
adopted by the Plains peoples, these animals
revolutionized hunting techniques, enabling
effkienl slaughter ol buffalo and eosy long-
distance movement. Mony peoples soon
abandoned agriculture in favour ot o way
of lite based an horseback hunting.
S Movements of Native American
PEOPLES 14TH 10
18TH CENTURIES
U*rj5fiwi til peoples
— »• UN — *■
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© 1'ROM III NTIMi TO FAK\IIXc, ; TIN-:. AMERICAS 12.000-1000 u ,
THE INC A AND AZTEC EMPIRES
1400-1540
► Also known as Tahuanlinsuyu ("the
land of the (our quarters"), the Inca
Empire extended from modern Ecuador to
southern Chile. The rulers established their
authority over the peoples they conquered
by relocating large numbers, either
sending them to work temporarily at
nearby way-stations, or moving them
permanently to more distant provinces.
They also ensured that provincial heirs to
power were educated in Cuzco and
brought provincial cult objects to the
capital. In the provinces sacred mountains
such as Cerro El Plomo in Chile became the
sites of state-dedicated child sacrifices, and
oracular centres and ancient ruined cities
were appropriated for Inca ceremonies.
▲ The Inca ruler was believed to be
descended from the Sun God, one of a
number of deities to whom offerings were
made - as visualized in the painting on this
wooden cup. Decorated with inlaid pigments,
it represents the trophy head of an Anti, an
uncivilized enemy from the Antisuyu tropical
forest "quarter" of the empire. Made by
Inca descendants in the colonial period and
influenced by European art, it juxtaposes
pre-Hispanic characters and activities with
the abstract motifs (tokapu) of traditional
Inca art.
► The Inca capital of Cuzco was literally
the focal point of the empire. Four avenues
emanating from the centre of the city were
linked to the empire's road system and led
to the symbolic four "quarters" of the
empire. Two of these avenues also divided
the city into ritually complementary
northwest and southeast halves, Hanan and
Hurin. The stone walls of Cuzco later served
as the bases for Spanish colonial buildings.
1 The Inca Empire
^^ Iniponnl Ituumlay
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ftitou
The short-lived Inca Empire in the Andes and Aztec
Empire in Mesoamerica were the last to dominate the
two principal areas of urbanized culture which had
developed over a period of 3,000 years before the arrival of
the Spanish. Both mobilized labour for state projects and
extracted valued materials and objects from their subjects,
but while the Aztecs undertook most of their building and
manufacturing projects in the imperial core - particularly
in their capital city, Tenochtitlan, under present-day Mexico
City — the Incas had broader control over their subjects and
directed projects in distant territories. In Tenochtitlan the
Aztecs created a remarkable assembly of large, finely carved
stone sculptures in a mere 70-year period before the fall of
their empire to the Spanish in 1521, but little can now be
seen of these. In comparison, distinctive Inca architecture,
ceramics and other remains have been found throughout
their empire, the largest in pre-Spanish America.
The Inca Empire
Unlike the inhabitants of Mesoamerica, who recorded
history in manuscripts with hieroglyphic dates and picto-
graphic representations of rulers and their activities, the
ancient Andeans used knotted strings (quipus) for record-
keeping. The reconstruction of the history of the Inca
Empire is therefore problematic. Inca conquests of local
neighbours around the capital of Cuzco probably date from
the 14th century (pages 84-85), and the period of greatest
expansion began around 1440 under Pachacuti, who rebuilt
the imperial capital, and his successor Tupac Yupanqui. At
its height the empire covered a 4,200-kilometre (2,600-
mile) strip along western South America, encompassing
coastal and highland valleys from Quito in modern Ecuador
to southern Chile (map 1).
The Incas were great builders, and the extent of their
empire is still visible in an advanced road system of high-
land and lowland routes along which armies and caravans
of llamas moved. At intervals there were settlements or way-
stations built of distinctive Inca stonework, such as the
well-studied site of Huanuco Pampa. These architectural
complexes included accommodation for local artisans and
labourers working for the state, feasting halls and ceremo-
nial plazas for the wooing of the local elite, facilities for
storage, and lodgings for imperial representatives. All
aspects of production, from the acquisition of materials to
the manufacture and distribution of finished items, were
controlled by the state.
The Inca capital of Cuzco
Cuzco was the political, cultural and ritual focal point of the
empire. It was surrounded by settlements of Inca common-
ers and members of the elite and their retainers, relocated
from sometimes distant areas of the empire. Cuzco proper
(map 2) was relatively small, containing only the residences
of the living ruler and royal clans reputedly descended from
previous kings (some fictitious), plus the temples, plazas,
platforms and halls for imperial ritual. Palaces and temples
consisted of rows of simple adobe or stone rooms with
gabled straw roofs; where they differed from homes of com-
moners was in the quality of workmanship and materials,
such as finely worked ashlar masonry, gold and silver sheets
attached to walls, and elaborately dyed and plaited thatch.
The Aztecs
Because the Aztecs kept written records, we have a better
idea of their imperial history. The empire was founded in
1431, after the Aztec war of independence from the
Tepanecs who had previously dominated the Valley of
Mexico. It was formed by an alliance of three cities -
Texcoco, Tlaeopan and Tenochtitlan - the last of which
quickly became the dominant city.
All Tenochca Aztec rulers were warriors, but the two
responsible for the greatest expansions were Motecuhzoma,
or Montezuma I (r. 1440-69), who also reorganized Aztec
society and rebuilt the imperial capital, and Ahuitzotl
(r. 1486-1502), who extended the empire to the border of
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 2
«.chichimec5s
r^
TARASCAN
EMPIRF
e
""V Co o
/ TOIOTEPEC
3 The provinces of the Aztec Empire c.1520
Impend tauidnrY ■ PrcNiraiul boundary
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modern Guatemala. Early expansion by Montezuma I and
two other kings consolidated the highlands on all sides of
the capital, while later thrusts by Ahuitzotl and Montezuma
II (r. 1502-19) went into tropical coastal areas and temper-
ate highlands to the south and east. The west and north
were blocked by the enemy Tarascan Empire and by cul-
turally less complex groups to whom the Aztecs applied the
derogatory term "Ghichimecs". At the time of the Spanish
arrival in 1519, Aztec armies were reportedly poised to
invade the northern Maya kingdoms on the Yucatan
Peninsula from the port of Xicalango.
The structure of the Aztec Empire
The Aztec Empire extended from the Pacific to the Gulf
coast, but imperial provinces were bordered by blocks of
unconquered territories, keeping the people of Mesoamerica
in a constant state of warfare. The region had well-devel-
oped market and long-distance trading systems centuries
before the rise of the Aztecs, who tried to control these
where they could; however, many networks continued to
operate independently. The Aztecs did not put their ener-
gies into administrative structures, and their empire lacked
the monumental road system of the Incas' polity. However,
Aztec artisans were accomplished stone carvers, as
evidenced by surviving temples at mountain sites like
Malinalco to the southwest of the capital.
After conquest of a province, numerous captives of war
were brought to the capital for sacrifice. As in Peru,
captured deity images were put in Aztec temples, sacred
mountain sites were appropriated for ceremonies and
temples, and tribute was demanded. However, conquered
groups were not relocated; instead, loyal subjects from
Tenochtitlan and nearby areas were sent to strategically
located colonies, while members of the foreign elite and
traders spent time in the cities of the imperial centre.
At its height Tenochtitlan, which occupied an island in
the shallow lake that dominated the Valley of Mexico, had a
population of perhaps 200,000, four times that of its nearest
rival. According to contemporary descriptions, it had a huge
central precinct in which four great causeways met. The
precinct contained many temples and was immediately sur-
rounded by the palaces of rulers and the elite. Beyond were
the neighbourhoods of commoners, where enclosed com-
pounds and house gardens were organized in a grid of
streets and canals.
Texcoco and Tlacopan on the east and west shores,
along with numerous other towns as old as or older than
Tenochtitlan, remained uneasy allies and potential enemies
of the capital. Thus when the Spanish arrived in 1519 they
found thousands of Indian allies both in the valley and
throughout the empire ready to revolt against the Aztecs.
▲ The Aztec Empire covered much of what
is now central Mexico, with one separate
province adjacent to distant Maya territory.
There were substantial unconquered areas
next to and surrounded by imperial
provinces. The empire's capital,
Tenochtitlan, and its two uneasy allies -
Tlacopan and Texcoco - were just three
of some 50 cities with surrounding
territories and satellite towns in the lake
zone of the Valley of Mexico.
< Manuscripts of the Spanish colonial
period have made it possible to reconstruct
the Aztec Empire's structure. Among them
is the Codex Mendoza, which includes
pictures of the pre-Conquest tributes that
were demanded from individual provinces
- among them warriors' clothing, bags of
feathers and dried chillies.
© CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOAMERICA AND SOUTH AMERICA 500-1500 pages 84-85 O SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS 1492-1550 pages 120-21
THE EARLY MODERN WORLD
Before 15(H) there was a gradual overall increase in the world's population
and economy, although epidemics and widespread famine sometimes caused
a temporary decline. Then in the space of 300 years the population more
than doubled, from 425 to 900 million, and the world economy expanded
rapidly as Europe embarked on a process of exploration, colonization and
domination of intercontinental commerce.
► Porcelain wos amongst the
Chinese products lor which ihere
was o great demand in Europe.
Another wo; silk. The export ol
both product; Irom China
ensured that trade with the West
continued to flourish through on!
lbeI6lh, 17th and 18lh
centuries, although Chinese
merchants did not themselves
venture outside Asm.
to the American mainland and the creation of
Spanish and Portuguese colonics in the Caribbean
and South America. New trade routes across the
Atlantic and Indian oceans were pioneered by the
Spanish and Portuguese, to be taken over in the
17th century by the Dutch, English and French.
Africa was both a survivor and a victim of this
transoceanic transport revolution. The economies
of its states - and the extensive trade network
linking the north, east and west of the continent -
were little affected by contact with the Europeans.
However, from 1450 over 12 million Africans were
forced to embark on a journey across the Atlantic
as slaves destined to work in the plantations and
gold and silver mines of Europe's colonics in the
Americas and the Caribbean,
The Europeans* exploration and discovery of
the world began in earnest in the second half
of the 15th century when the desire to find a
sea route to the East led to a series of Portuguese
voyages down the west coast of Africa. The Cape of
Good Hope was finally reached in 14SK, just four
years before Christopher Columbus set sail across
the Atlantic, on behalf of Spain, in search of a
westward route to China. His discovery of the West
Indies was quickly followed by Spanish expeditions
El ROPKAN TKADK WITH ASIA
The Europeans were to have a greater effect on the
economies of Asia. In South and Southeast Asia the
Portuguese combined plunder with trade, and by
the 1560s they were importing about half the spiecs
reaching Europe from the East. With overland
Eurasian trade becoming increasingly hazardous -
and also costly as local rulers extorted high
protection costs - merchants from other European
nations sought to establish rhemselves in the
► Despite periods ol vigorous
territorial ond economic
expansion, the greet land
empires lulled to participate in
the commercial revolution led by
the countries ol northern Europe
in the 17lh and ISth centuries.
In 1700 they still covered vast
areas, bul in the following
century the three Muslim
empires - the Mughal, Solovid
and Ottoman - declined os the
commercial ond military power
ol the Europeans expanded.
1 EUHiSIAH UNO
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oceanic Asian trade. In 1600 and 1602 the English
and Dutch East India Companies were created, and
within a few years the Dutch company had
weakened Portuguese power in the Indian Ocean.
However, local politics and rivalries between Hindu
and Muslim entrepreneurs and courtier-traders
continued to influence the patterns of European
commerce and imperialism.
In the first half of the 17th century a struggle
between Crown and Parliament in England, and a
war of liberation in the Netherlands (from which
the independent Dutch Republic emerged), placed
merchant capitalists in both countries in more
powerful positions. By the 1650s they were the
leading economies of Europe. A century later trade
outside Europe accounted for 20 to 25 per cent of
the Dutch Republic's total trade, while the figure for
England was as high as 50 per cent.
THE EMPIRES OF ASIA
The rapid growth of northern European trade was
not closely related to technological achievement: in
the 17th century Europe imported Asian
manufactured goods rather than vice versa, and per
capita productivity in India and China was
probably greater than in Europe. However, the
technological superiority of India and China was
not matched by an urge towards overseas
expansion and conquest. Under the Ming dynasty
(1368-1644) Chinese voyages of exploration in the
early 15th century had reached as far as the east
coast of Africa. Yet while these voyages helped to
consolidate China's sphere of influence in Asia,
they did not lead to the creation of a far-reaching
overseas trading network. Instead, trade with the
rest of Asia and with Europe continued to flourish
with the aid of overland routes, short-distance sea
routes and foreign merchants, resulting in an
outflow of ceramics and silk, and an inflow of silver.
China relied on intensive agriculture to support
its ever-growing population, but in the 16th century
it was stricken by harvest failures, droughts and
famine, which in turn led to frequent rebellions.
Insufficient resources were devoted to defence, and
in 1644 the Ming dynasty gave way to Manchu
conquerors from the north. Under the Manchus,
China became preoccupied with defending its own
borders, which by 1760 had expanded to
encompass a greater area than ever before (map 1).
In India the Mughal Empire - established in 1526
by Muslim warrior descendants of the Mongols -
was centred on cities in the country's heartland. Its
rulers financed their administration, and the
architectural achievements for which they are
renowned, by taxing local agriculture and
commerce. However, they had little interest in
overseas trade beyond the existing involvement of
the artisanal industries in the Muslim trading
networks that stretched from Arabia to Indonesia.
The Portuguese, who were intent on seizing control
of these networks, used their ships' guns to
overcome opposition and established trading posts
around the coast. They were followed by Dutch,
English and French merchants.
The Mughal Empire was just one of three
powerful Muslim empires in the 16th century.
Another was that of the Ottoman Turks, who after
their capture of Constantinople in 1453 had
embarked on a process of territorial expansion in
Africa, Asia and Europe. This was to continue until
1683 when their last major expedition was driven
back from Vienna, the Austrian Ilahsmirg capital.
Among the other great powers with which the
Ottomans came into conflict in the 16th century
was the third representative of the political and
cultural achievements of Islam at this time - the
Safavid Empire (1501-1736) in Iran. Despite a
resounding Ottoman victory in 1514, it was not
until 1639 that the border between the two empires
- the present-day frontier between Iran and Iraq -
was firtnlv established.
< Hie Mughal emperor Akbar
is shown in this painting oiler
riding on elephant aver o bridge
af boats across the River Jumna.
Ruling between 1 556 and 1605.
Akbor was responsible (or the
considerable expansion of the
Mughal Empire's territory and
for cresting a tenlraliied and
efficient administration.
During the Mughal period ifie
Europeans established trading
posts around ihe coasl. They
brought gold and silver from the
Ameriias, and so In the short
term I bey stimulated the Indian
etonomy. However, in the 18th
century their activities wete to
contribute to the decline of the
Uughals and the beginning of
British rule in India.
T Ihe shahs of ihe Satovid
Empire were great patrons of
architecture and art - of which
this pitlure made up of tiles is a
fine example. Greatesl of ail
artistic patrons was Abbas I
i 1 587- 1 61°) Alter bis death
the empire went into decline
and finally collapsed in 1 736.
▼ The Europeans' "discovery"
of ihe world gave an enormous
stimulus la cartography and I he
improvement of optical
inslrumenfs. Il also heralded a
new rapacity lor observation of
the natural world which
eventually surpassed even 'Inn
of the Chinese. The sophislicoled
depiction of spatial relationships
which evolved in art is
exemplified in IbeAtliif's Studio
(c 16601 by tht Dutch portlier
inn Vermeer.
THE MAJOR LAND EMPIRES OF EUROPE
The conflict with the Safavids temporarily diverted
Ottoman attention away from Europe, where the
power with which it most frequency eame into
direct confrontation in the Kith arid 17th centuries
was the Habsburg Empire. In the 1520s this empire
was little more than the largest conglomeration of
territories and rights in Europe - among them
Spain, Austria, Hungary and the former lands of the
Duchy of burgundy - since the Mth century, ft was
not welded into a more coherent empire until the
Thirty Years War of 161K-4N, from which time the
llnbshurgs began the rceonquest of Hungarian
territory lost to the Ottomans and thus became the
major dynastic power of central Europe,
To the northeast of the Habsburg Empire lay
Poland - a kingdom which through much of the
17th and 18th centuries was in conflict with
Russia. Under Muscovy's (irand Duke Ivan III
(r. 1462-1505), Russia began a process of
exploration and expansion on land comparable with
that undertaken overseas hy the western European
maritime powers. By the end of the 18th century
its empire stretched from the Baltic to the Pacific
Ocean, and formed a world economy in miniature.
A In 1 607 on English colony was
established in Virginia, where lohn
White had pointed ihis view of a Native
American village in the 1580s. Further
north the colony of Plymouth was
established in 1 620 by the Pilgrim
Fathers, a Puritan group who had
broken away (ram the Church of
England. Many such separatist groups
were lo settle in North America.
COLONIZATION OF THE AMERICAS
Following the European discovery of the Americas
- and the highly valued commodities to be found
there - world demand for gold and silver ensured
the gradual integration of the New World into the
emerging European world economy. The Spanish
conquest of Central and South America from the
end of the 15th century was accompanied by the
decimation of the native Indian population - not as
a deliberate act of genocide but mainly as a result
of diseases imported from Europe and a regime of
forced labour, The estimated pre -conquest
population of about 57 million was reduced to less
than six million by the late Kith century. A similar
fate awaited the smaller North American population
when European colonists began to arrive in the
17th century. In order to replace native forced
labour, slavery was introduced by the Spanish
uonqxtistudorcs and their successors. Between 1500
and Ki50 about 500,000 African slaves were
imported by the Spanish and Portuguese. Far
greater numbers were subsequently imported when
the slave system was extended to the Dutch.
English and French colonies.
In the short term the Europeans' discovery of the
New World drained resources away from Spain and
Portugal, who pursued their expansionist strategies
through conquest. Expansion in the Americas did
not become profitable for the European powers
until the later 17th century, when a thriving
colonial economy began to develop, based on the
plantation crops of sugar in the West Indies;
tobacco, rice and indigo in the central and
southern mainland colonies; and family farms.
3 World trading empires 1 770
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< Al the beginning of the lilh
century European trading routes
did not reoch beyond Wesl
Africa. By ihe end of ihe 1 8rh
century they crossed ihe Atlantic,
Pacific and Indian oceans,
inextricably linking Europe, Asio
and ihe Americas in ihe growing
exchange of row materials,
foodstuffs, manufactured goods
and silver.
handicraft production rind intra-eolonial trade in
New England and the other northern colonies.
Profits from trade with the colonies at first went
principally to cho Dutch Republic, followed closely
by England and then France.
EUROPEAN DOMINATION OF TRADE
The domination of the evolving global economy by
Europe, rather than by CEiina or the Islamic
powers, was due to si number of convergent forces,
including the development of maritime enterprise
and, later, of scientific and technological
innovations. The division of the (Ihiirch during the
1(>th -century Reformation, between Catholic and
Protestant believers, encouraged international
rivalry and emigration to the \ew World. However.
above all else, it was the existence of a competitive
state system in Europe, and the willingness and
capacity of European governments ro mobilize
military and naval power in support of trade, which
secured European hegemony. By the mid- 1 Nth
century the octopus-like grip of the European trade-
routes formed an interlocking whole, in which
American bullion paid for Asian luxuries ami for
the supplies of timber and other naval stores from
the Baltic countries that were essential for further
commercial expansion [maps 2 and 3),
The growing European appetite for colonial and
Asian goods - including tea, sugar, tobacco, spices,
and silks - as well as luxury items produced within
Europe, was to play a significant role in the
industrialization of western Europe, and of Britain
in particular. The spread of consumerism and the
desire for market-bought products encouraged rural
households to specialize in both food production
and various types of cottage industry in order to
enhance their purchasing power - with the result
that an early "industrious revolution" operating at
the level of the household economy took place.
At the same time the commercial revolution
provided new overseas markets for manufactured
goods, especially in North America after around
1750. as well as essential raw materials such as
dyestuffs, raw cotton and silk, and iron ore. The
struggle to protect overseas markets and colonial
soirrces of supply stimulated war industries such as
shipbuilding, armaments and metal-smelting, all of
which saw major technological improvements in
the 18th century. The expansion of tile Europe-
centred world economy thus paved the way for the
Industrial Revolution which was to take place first
in Britain, and then in Europe and the 1'nited
States, with enormous repercussions for the world
in the 1 9th century.
THE EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD
1450-1600
1 Voyages of exploration
1435-1600
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— >■ Jj;plDiH5 on bflhnH ol England
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Most civilizations knew something of the world
outside their own territorial boundaries before
Europeans discovered the existence of the Americas
in the 1490s. The Greeks had circumnavigated Britain as
early as 310 bc, by the 1st century ad Rome had established
links with China, while the Chinese themselves had explored
Central Asia, reaching the Euphrates by AD 360. However,
the insularity of the Chinese court in the late 15th century
(pages 138-39) - leading to the destruction of most of the
official records of Zheng He's pioneering voyages of 1405-33
in the Pacific and Indian oceans - undermined any sustained
contact with the wider world. The discoveries by European
explorers were new and momentous in the sense that
expanding geographical horizons were matched by new
mental horizons.
The geographical discoveries of the late 15th century
were neither isolated nor accidental historical events. Rather,
they were part of a European expansionist phase, and were to
some degree a response to the disruption of Eurasian
commerce brought about by plague, the closure of the Silk
Road and the caravan routes during the 1360s, and the fall
of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The need to
find a direct route to the Far East, principally for trading silks
and spices, provided a powerful impetus to exploration.
The Portuguese led the way with a series of expeditions
from 1415 to explore the west coast of Africa (pages 80-81).
In 1445 the westernmost tip of the continent was rounded,
and by 1460 they had travelled 3,200 kilometres (2,000
miles) south as far as Sierra Leone, bringing back spices, gold
and slaves. By 1474 the equator had been crossed, and in
1488 Bartholomew Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope
(map 1 ) - an important step towards the establishment of a
sea route to India, which was achieved by Vasco da Gama in
1497-98. After Dias's voyage, mapmakers were able to show
the sea encompassing southern Africa, but the globe was still
envisaged as a much smaller - and younger - planet than is
actually the case, and was thought to be dominated by the
Eurasian landmass.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
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A When Christopher Columbus set sail
across the Atlantic in 1492 he was guided
by the assertion of the Greek geographer
Ptolemy (c. ad 85-1 50) that the circum-
ference of the Earth is about 1 1 ,000
kilometres (7,000 miles) shorter than it
actually is and that, going west, there is no
land between Europe and Asia. His belief
that the West Indies were islands off the
coast of China was quickly discredited when
further Spanish expeditions began to
explore the Americas and, beyond them,
the Pacific Ocean.
The Spanish and the New World
While Portuguese explorers searched for a passage to the East
by a southeasterly route, the Spanish searched in a westerly
and southwesterly direction. Although they were unsuccess-
ful in reaching their immediate goal, the result was the
discovery of the West Indies and the Venezuelan coast by
Christopher Columbus between 1492 and 1502. Columbus,
as his Spanish patrons realized, had greatly underestimated
the distances involved in reaching Asia by a southwesterly
route, but he nevertheless pressed on. The New World was
Spain's unexpected prize, confirmed in the Treaty of
Tordesillas of 1494, and first described by the explorer and
writer Amerigo Vespucci in travel accounts published from
1507. By the 1520s the Old World recognized the Americas
as an enormous "new" continent between Europe and Asia.
Spanish exploitation of the Caribbean islands began with
the settlement of Hispaniola in 1493, followed by that of
Cuba and Puerto Rico. These islands provided a base for the
exploration of Central America, and the failure of the
Spanish to find a sea route to Asia encouraged further colo-
nization and plunder. Mainland settlement began in 1509-10
on the isthmus of Panama. Hernan Cortes, the first of the
conquistadores, established Spanish control over the Aztec
Empire in Mexico in 1521, and in South America Francisco
Pizarro subdued the empire of the Incas in Peru and Bolivia
during the 1520s and early 1530s (pages 120-21). The con-
quest of Mexico and Peru provided new opportunities for
transpacific exploration (map 2), and in 1527 Saavedra
travelled across the Pacific from the coast of Mexico to the
Moluccas. A viable return route, from the Philippines to
Acapulco, was first navigated by Urdaneta in 1565 and was
followed thereafter by Spanish galleons. In 1567 Mendana
and Sarmiento led an expedition in search of a great south-
ern continent and found the Solomon Islands. Mendana
attempted to return there to establish a Christian colony in
1595, accompanied by the Portuguese navigator Quiros.
They were unable to find the Solomons but instead stumbled
on the Marquesas and Santa Cruz islands. However, it was
not until the more scientific voyages of the 18th century that
the full extent of the Pacific, from Alaska to New Zealand and
the east coast of Australia, was to be explored.
The English, French and Dutch in North America
For much of the 16th century the Spanish and Portuguese
attempted to exclude northern Europeans from their
expanding colonial empires and the new sea routes across
the southern hemisphere. As a result, the opening up of the
north Atlantic world was mainly an English, French and
Dutch enterprise, although it was more than a by-product of
the quest for a northwestern route to the East. The first
initiatives were probably undertaken as early as the 1420s
by Bristol merchants involved in trade with Iceland. These
traders were certainly exploring the coast of Newfoundland
in 1481, some time before John Cabot made his historic
voyage of 1497. Cabot, under commission from the English
crown, discovered 640 kilometres (400 miles) of coastline
from Newfoundland to Cape Breton, and by 1509 his son
Sebastian had travelled as far south as Cape Cod.
In 1510 the English knew more about North America
than any other European country did, but during the next
half century the French moved into the lead. In 1524
Verrazano, in the service of France, sailed along the coast
from Cape Fear to Newfoundland, thereby proving that the
earlier discoveries of Columbus and Cabot were part of a
single landmass. The first steps in exploring North America's
interior were taken ten years later by Jacques Cartier, who
travelled along the St Lawrence River as far as Montreal. It
was not until the 1570s and 1580s that the English returned
to the area, with the voyages of Frobisher and Davis, in
search of a northwest passage via Newfoundland (map 1).
The years 1577-80 also saw an important breakthrough in
English efforts when Francis Drake circumnavigated the
world in the search for a new transpacific route.
The northern maritime countries were fortunate to
inherit the more sophisticated seamanship and navigational
skills of the Portuguese and Spanish. The art of celestial nav-
igation, using the quadrant and astrolabe, was improved by
the Portuguese during the 1480s, when manuscript copies of
the first navigational manual, the Regimento, became avail-
able prior to its publication in 1509. Sebastian Cabot, an
expert cartographer, helped to spread knowledge of Spanish
navigational techniques in England. Although ships gradu-
ally increased in size during the 16th century, improvements
in ship design were not, of themselves, sufficient to stimu-
late the long-distance exploration which took place during
this period. The Dutch introduced top masts and sails, as
well as the fluytschip (a flat-bottomed cargo carrier), and
these advances certainly facilitated commercial exploitation
and colonization of a type that was markedly different from
the plundering of the conquistadores and the privateering
expeditions of Drake. However, the idea of European settle-
ment in the Americas in order to exploit fully the land's
natural resources was surprisingly slow to win acceptance
and, when it did, was invariably difficult to sustain.
© EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 © THE RISE OF EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL EMPIRES pages 130-31
EUROPEANS IN ASIA
1500-1790
A The Portuguese seaborne empire was
hosed on o arias o( forts linking together
trading, entrepots from the toast of Africa to
South and Southeast Asia, and on lo China
and Japan. This system secured Portuguese
Irode with the East for newly o tentury. The
empire was governed from Goo. on ttie west
coosl of India, which had been captured far
Portugal by Afonso de Albuquerque in
1510 Although the Portuguese were to lose
most of their easlern possessions to the
Dutch in the I7lh century, they managed la
hold on ta Goo, surviving Outdr blockades
offatity in 1603 and 1639.
Although European explorers bad ventured into Asia
in the 1st century AD, significant European contact
with the continent (inly liegau on 27 May 1498 when
the Portuguese fleet ofVaseo d:i Gaon landed at Calicut on
the west coast ot* India, Da Gatna had rounded the Cape of
Good Hope in search of the valuable spices and silks which
had long reached Europe only via expensive overland
routes. Over the next hundred years a Portuguese
"seaborne empire" spread around the coasts of the Indian
Ocean, moving ever further cast and developing a chain of
forts linking Orntuz, (km. Cochin, Ceylon (Sri Lanka),
Melaka and Tenia to [map J). Japan was reached in 1542
and a settlement established in China, at Macau, in 1555,
Portuguese thawing kmpikk
The motives of the Portuguese were both economic and
religious. In the pursuit of wealth, they attempted to
establish a monopoly over the spice trade to Europe and
to force entry into an already extensive trailing network
within Asia. Previously, this commerce had been
conducted by indigenous merchants along free-trade prin-
ciples, but the Portuguese coerced local merchants into
paying them licence fees and seized the most lucrative
trade routes for themselves. In the service of Cud. they
promoted Christianity, fit some cases, the two objectives
dovetailed neatly; in Japan, between 1542 and lf>.V>, they
made more than 100.(11)0 converts while running a
valuable silk trade from Macau and advising the rising
power of the Tokugavva shogunatc on military tactics.
Vet Portuguese influence in the East was to prove
short-lived. In part, it suffered from problems at home.
Rivalry with Spain was intense and after the crowns of the
two Iberian countries were united in 15NO internecine strife
became hitter, A further problem was caused by the revival
of Asian empires, whose temporary weaknesses had been
exploited by the Portuguese, fn Japan, for example, once the
Tbkugawa (tinges 140-41 ) bail achieved victory in the civil
wars, they expelled the Iberians and la If).! 1 ) outlawed
Christianity as a danger to the stability of their new state.
1520
Dutch trade un Asia
For the most part, however, Portuguese influence was
eclipsed by the rise of another European power. The Dutch
had long been involved in war against Spain (puges
/ 52-5.1) and took the unification of its throne with that of
Portugal as a sign til to penetrate Asian waters and at rack
the Portuguese Empire. I'ollowing the establishment of
their East India Company in 1602, the Dutch pro-
gressively displaced the Portuguese in Asian trade and
developed their own trading empire further east (mcip 2).
They also expanded Asian trade with Europe, Africa and
the Americas, bringing Chinese porcelain into Western
markets and Indian cotton textiles to the slave coasts of
Africa and plantations of the New World.
The snecess of the Dutch was based on superior
mercantile and maritime skills, which enabled them to
enforce trade monopolies with greater ruthlessness. It also
owed something to religion since, as Protestants, they were
less interested in making converts than dieir Catholic rivals
and were thus perceived as less of a threat by the
indigenous societies. Following the expulsion of the Iberians
front Japan, for example, the Tokugawa invited the Dutch
to conduct Japan's external trade at Nagasaki.
[hitch maritime influence grew during the 1 7th century
ami remained strong cast of Ceylon throughout the ISth
century. However, it too faced, eventual eclipse. One reason
for this was that the Dutch were drawn into the politics of
the hinterlands behind their port settlements and spent
scarce resources on local wars at great cost to their trade.
However, the principal reason for their demise was the
belated entry into Asian trade of the much stronger
European states of England and France.
Tut; Km. ii-ti \\n ink Kkkmh in Indiv
English merchants had initially tried to break into the spice
trade of the Indonesian archipelago but after the Massacre
of Amboina in 1623, when Dutch forces had destroyed
their principal trading settlement, they were effectively
excluded. Instead they concentrated on India, where the
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
f The Europeans were drawn towards Asm
by Ihe lure of stalk consumer goads - leo,
spices and silk - and by high-quality
manufactures such as porcelain and printed
cotton lejrte (chinties].
authority of the Mughal Empire (jtuges 144— 15) con-
strained the Dutch from gaining too tight a control and
offered opportunities lor competitive trade (mop J),
India was originally regarded as of limited mercantile
importance because its spices were thought to lie of lower
quality than those found elsewhere. Vet this judgement was
subsequently proved to he mistaken; India also possessed
an enormous cotton textile industry, the sign ifiea nee of
which became increasingly apparent as the 17th century
advanced {pages 194-95), Cotton textiles were already
established in the vast network of Asian trade, so the
3 Principal commodities in Asian tram
1600-1750
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ft »* iC V
JilWI fti/d
Af 1 ^™ x flwicti
Java
KnAlish gained secondary access to markets from the Gulf
to the China seas. There was also a growing demand in
Europe for Indian textiles, and from the KoOs onwards the
cloth trade became the main source of European profits in
Asia. This, in turn, caught the attention of the French,
whose first Asian settlement was established in India in
lfi(i4, and the two newcomers steadily reduced the Dutch
presence around the shores of India, The English also used
India as a staging post for ventures further east, forging a
broad triangular trade with China, from which tea, raw silk
and porcelain were exported to the West in return for
Indian silver and opium.
From the second quarter of the I8ih century trade rela-
tions between England, Prance and India began to change.
Many European states put up tariff barriers against Indian
textile imports in order to protect their own dom-
estic industries. This increased the importance to the
English of trade with China and, in turn, placed greater
emphasis on their ability to gain access to Indian silver and
opium. In addition the Mughal Empire, which had previ-
ously confined European activities to the coasts, began to
break up. Its successor states were soon at war with one
a nor her, making demands for finance and armaments
which the Europeans found too lucrative to ignore. From
the I 740s England and France also began a series of wars
against each other which were to last - with brief inter-
ruptions - for the rest of the century, and end in the
domination by "iiriiish India" of a vast area of the world
from Arabia to the China seas.
MUGHAL EMPIRE
ItSSJHuogKy
1612
A fSSuroi U
1 \6IS-33
SSJDii** QDqmonISM
1130-1664 to Part**
1661 fc Er<j
Arabian
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h
1635-49
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1644
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1570
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1641
I
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1 European activity in Asia c. 1650
12 DiiUli pKscasiws
12 DwS possessions
| M^jese r<iss«sr]rs
16*0 lsofc*DciHjftNjn
PJ ipcnsh possessus
a Foctef
| Irffill (dSHSWIS
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1660-77
Mokawr
1648/67 Q
.1622, '58
JtJW]
A By lb« mid I /ill century ihe Dutch hod
'i!iii:i to daminale Asian trade, taking aver
Poriugusse positions around the Indian
Ocean, especially in southwest India and
Ceylon (Sri Lanka], further eosl Ibey
founded their awn trading cupilol at Baluvia
Uakarta), whkh dominated ihe Indonesian
□rrhipclago. The Spanish established trade
routes across the PoA betveeert the
Philippines and their American colonies.
ltmhak / ' \
,6 74 Sumbo^j
m ■■■
l(So7'V\
Moluccas
Sufahrfej ^^ . Nsw
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1613/67 «.,.„/„ Koih
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D '"IKJf
1653
O KINGDOMS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 500-1500 pages 64-65 © SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE ERA OF IMPERIALISM 1790-1914 pages 196-97
SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS
1492-1550
I The Caribbean 1497-1550
tot/ies of:
— »■ Coknbus I4M-JJ
— -»■ CslwnbiB 1493-W
-->■ Calunibm 1 498
— *■ MimhislSn-4
— * (Ml 1499
— *■ BosltckE. and da Lo C«a 1 5CI1 — 2
— » Dg Softs ond Mi 150S-1
— *■ BofboolSIS
— ► toncefele6i>i513
P rj L' ifi c
i' a □ if
A CwcioJ lo the liisl phase ol Spanish
coUiiuiion were the foul voyoges in wtiiih
Columbus discovered the principal Caribbean
islands and explored major sections of the
ma in la nd roast . These were Fallowed by
lurttin nnval expeditions mounl«t from
Spain - involving many of Co lu nib us s
former companions.
► Ik travels ol Narvoei, cte Void, de Soto
ond Coronndo wore nol considered
ii: : :• -In 1 since ihey brought neither weolth
nor property lo the Spanish ctown.
Information they provided, however,
resulted in a new understanding of the
maui rontours ol the southern port ol North
America, which was reflected in
[On temporary maps of the area.
V Acting on information gleaned from
earlier voyages around the Yucolon
Peninsula, Herndn Cortes led a small or my
into Mexico in search ol Aztec gold in 1 51 9.
On the woy he formed on alliance with the
Tlaxcalans, enemies of the Alters, and with
their help he completed his conquest of the
Aztec Empire in 1521.
3 CORTES' EXPEDITION TO
TtfflKHTITUN
—*■ (*' route to forttliMlan 1519
— *• tared much ISM
— ■ Setrsot rxu) r*tum IS20-2I
Columbus discovered America in Che name of Spain in
\V-)2. hut this famous voyage was merely the initial
step in the Spanish colonization of a large part of the
continent, a process that took plaee in three stages.
The Caribbean and the Gulf or Mexico
Until 1518 the Spanish undertook the exploration and set-
tlement of the Caribbean and the ( .lull' of Mexico I map 1 ).
However, Spanish attempts to exploit their new territories
by establishing trading posts in the Caribbean were unsuc-
cessful, because the simple agrarian societies of the islands
could not sustain a trading economy. Instead, the Spanish
established colonies of exploitation in Hispaniola, Cuba and
Puerto Rico, using forced Indian labour in agriculture and
go I dunning, From 151(1, however, the economy was under-
mined by tile collapse nf the indigenous svorkforce, caused
by Spanish mistreatment and by the spread of European
diseases to which the islanders bad little natural resistance.
The Aztec and Inca emi'iiies
Spanish interest therefore turned to the great civilizations of
the mainland Ijittgcs 1 It)-! 1 1 which, in the second and
most important phase of Spanish colonization, were recon-
noitred and eventually conquered in a two-pronged
exploration from the islands [map 2).
In 15 IS I Ionian ( lories was sent by the governor of Cuba
on a commercial and exploring expedition to the Yucatan
Peninsula. Once ashore, Cortes repudiated the governor's
mandate and henceforth acted on his own initiative,
acknowledging only the authority of the King of Spain. His
small army of military adventurers or conquistadorex,
having founded the losvn of Veracruz and symbolically scut-
tled its own boats, marched to Tlaxcala (map J). Here they
overcame initial resistance to form an alliance with the
Tlaxcalans, themselves resentful of Aztec overlordship.
Cortes and his Tlaxcalan allies entered the Aztec capital,
Tenoehticlan, in 1519, but early in 1520 Cortes was forced
to return to the coast to meet and win over to his side a
hostile Spanish army dispatched from Cuba under Narvaez.
Unfortunately the greed of the Spanish left behind in
Tenochtitlan had alienated the Aztecs and, on Cortes*
return, the Spanish were driven from the city in a series of
events which led to the death of the Atzec emperor
Montezuma. Cortes' army retreated to Tlaxcala, and in 1521
they and their Tlaxcalan allies launched a successful cam-
paign against Tenochtitlan. This victory brought under
Spanish control the millions of central Mexicans who had
formerly been Aztec tributaries.
Meanwhile, from Hispaniola. the Spanish had organized
colonics in liaricn and oil the Pacific coast of the Panama
isthmus, first crossed by balhoa in 1513. Panama was used
as a base for expeditions into Nicaragua and beyond and,
^¥
—
l CENTRA! AND SOlftHEBN NORTH AMERICA 1 SI 9-1 550
fioirn^ al:
—*■ tJnrtfclSlS-71 — * De5otol53SH3
Atounrf
tS,4$7 rn*fr»>) "
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
P* Rzditd's conquest
of i I'm; empire d! the
Ininswo^hefircTstog*
of the Spanish (oloniuiioti
of South Arnetiia. Rumours
ol gotd inspired three separate
expeditions in six years inlo the
mountains of what is now Colombia.
nub Morto
laiiwr
Daricn
Chrfi6c*Mi Sea
HMcfad
V*
Santa Moiio 9<
4 South America 1 526-
SO
tntae
Beralraro 11M-3J
— »•
Labor 15?^,
— •>
thill™ IM
— 1»
Francts*o PlrDrna T531 —3]
— *-
GormtaPtaro 1540-4!
— *•
Mp 1535-37
— »
Vrtii 1540-47
-*
Fedari™™ 153) -3)
-*
ttaodolM
more importantly, for a
series of exploratory
voyages in the late 1520s
along the Peruvian coast.
organized by Francisco
Pizarro and Diego de
Amalgro {map 4). Between
1531 and 1533 Pizarro's
Small army conquered the
Inea imperial cities of
Cajamarea and Cuzco. put to
death the Emperor Atahualpa
and replaced him with a puppet
ruler, the Emperor Manco.
Victory in Pent, however, was not
as eleareut as that in Mexico: the
Incas rebelled under Manco and
brutal civil wars broke out, both
between the oonquistadores themselves
and later between the colonists and royal
officials sent to govern them. Amalgro and
five Pizarro brothers were killed in these wars,
and Peru was not brought under Spain's control until
around 1560.
Further into the maim.and
Mexico and Peru provided the resources for the third
and final stage of Spanish territorial gains between the
mid- 1520s and mid- 1 540s. Alvarado's and Cortes'
expeditions from Mexico began the process by which
Guatemala and the Yueat;in were brought under
Spanish control, while a number of other campaigns
extended Spanish authority into northern Mexico.
However, the protracted wanderings of the Narvaez, de
Vaea, de Soto and Coronadn bands in the southern
United States were epic failures, establishing the north-
em limits of Spanish colonization. The expeditions of
Amalgro, Valdivia and Renaleazar from Peru extended
Spanish rule into Chile in the south and Ecuador and
Colombia in the north, where the conqtiistadores
encountered independent expeditions, such as
Quesada's. pushing down from the Caribbean coast.
.South America also had its share of heroic failures,
such as Orellanas descent of the Amazon (nutp 4).
The Spanish also tentatively explored the Plata
region in naval expeditions mounted from Spain, the
most notable of which was Sebastian Cabot's
exploration of the Parana and Paraguay rivers in
1526-30. From the mid- 1540s the surge of conquests
waned. By this time Spain had conquered the Americas
nearly as far it was ever going to, although many areas
were not intensively colonized until the 18th century.
The relentless courage, determination and energy
which had been displayed by the Spanish conquistadores
in acquiring land, wealth and subject populations in the
Americas are probably without parallel in the history of
European imperialism. However, the ferocious cruelty with
which they treated the native populations is hard to square
with their lofty claims that they were driven not just by the
desire to get rich but also by the ideals of bringing
Christianity and civilization to the American Indians. In
practice they recognized no authority but their own, and
their reckless disregard for their own lives was exceeded
only by their callous indifference to the welfare of the
peoples they conquered.
▼ Atahualpa, Ihe Into ruler, was urpiurc i
by Francisco Fizom> otter being enticed la
a meeting in the main square of Cajomorco.
Bis unarmed relinue was quickly overcame
and slaughtered by the Spanish artillery.
<
!
o
<
a.
S^
Cape Hotn
© THE INGA AND AZTEC EMPIRES 1400-1540 pages 110-11 © THE COLONIZATION OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA pages 122-23
THE COLONIZATION OF CENTRAL
AND SOUTH AMERICA 1500-1780
►■ Silver mining, whkh was concentroied
in Mexico and baud on the forced labour
of Amsricon Indian workers, octounled
ftK over 90 pet tent of Span^i-Americar
exports between 1 550 and 1 640. In the
Spanish Caribbean colonies ol Cuba,
Santo Domingo and Puerlo ilka,
however. African slave labour was used
to work Ihe sugar and coffee plantations.
^Cbihgotlsjn
Qu(f,aJ
Mexico
CJi
1 53^8 =
■^UttMmny 1579
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O GUATEMAIA
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1 MtXICO, CENTRAl AMERICA AND THE EASTERN
Caribbean
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1.530 DulB ci lounrJotton
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lmE«l|m!519
of Ml
• rflflpe
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# Miles
Si'n
2 Spanish and Portuguese South America 1 525-1750
\ i lixa Empire 1 \Vi
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we
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T;
l ho peoples conquered by the Spanish and Portuguese
in the Amerioaa embraced a very wide range of cul-
tures. Within the luca and Aztec empires there were
urban and agricultural communities in which small-scale
farmers produced ample surpluses for the noble and reli-
gious classes [jxigcs 110-11). In other regions there were
less stratified, semi-sedentary and nomadic societies in
whieh people produced little beyond their own consump-
tion needs At the time of the Conquest it is probable that
the indigenous population of Spanish America amounted to
some 40-50 million, 60 per cent of whieh was found in
Mexico anil Peru, while Portuguese Brazil had a population
of 2.5 million I pie chart 1). What is certain is that until
around 1650 all American Indian societies suffered massive
population losses - reducing the original totals by <J(I p c r
cent. These losses, once thought to be caused by Spanish
brutality, arc now largely attributed to the Indians' lack of
resistance to European and African diseases. While the
Indian population declined, the European, African and
mixed populations rose sharply as a result of migration from
Spain and the slave trade {pie chart 2). In the 18th cell tun'
there was very rapid population growth among all racial
groups, particularly the mixed and African populations.
The Spanish Empire
The economic development of the Spanish Empire was
concentrated in areas that had once been part of the Inea
and Aztec empires in central Peru and central Mexico
(mops J uml 2). Here the Spanish introduced a system
known as the encorraemia, under which groups of Amer-
ican Indians were allotted to a Spanish overlord, or
encomendero, to whom they supplied labour and tribute
and from whom, supposedly, they received protection.
In practice, the encomietuia system was highly
exploitative and this, combined with the decline in the
Indian population, led to its replacement by the
repartimimto in Mexico and the mita in Peru. These were
state-regulated labour systems under which the Indian
communities were required to supply labour to private
employers (and also to the state in Mexico) in three main
activities: mining, agriculture and textiles. The mining of
silver and mercury, which grew rapidly between 1 550 and
1640, was of key importance: silver alone provided Spanish
America with 'JO per cent of its exports. The agricultural
■4 The Spanish crown claimed sovereignty
over al American lerritory to Ihe west of the
line laid down ol Ihe Treaty ol Tordesillm in
1 494, while Portugal was given ihe territory
lo the east This formed ihe basis of ihe two
empires. In practice, however, Spanish
wealth in South America was coraefrlroted in
Peru, while the Portuguese empire es (ended
across ihe line along the Amazon and into
the Mala Gross: region to the south.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
1 Distribution of the American Indian population
of Spanish aho Portuguese America c 1 500
NEW SPAIN
I GUADALA1 ASA\1
3 Administrative Divisions of Spanish and
Portuguese America 1 780
H tao*J««fcte»S|»*ifciU!irfCiibi,)17U
UMA kaooito
EhitelHt*^FWw|jflHiRlSiwiBitimta7l?5fl
sector iilsn expanded as [he Spanish set about producing
commodities previously unknown to the Indians, principally
wheat, cattle, sheep, wine anil sugar. The production of wool
and cotton textiles was concentrated in Mexico. Economic
development outside Mexico and Peru was slow or even
non-existent, and here the Spanish continued to use the
eneomiendu system to appropriate the small surpluses of
foodstuffs and cash crops, such as cochineal, which the
depleted Indian populations could produce.
In the middle decades of the 17th century the decline
in the number of Indians and in the International price of
silver caused an economic recession in Spanish America.
However, recovery began around 1070 and in the 18th
century there was rapid economic growth In Mexico and
Peru this was based on the revival of the silver export
industry and the expansion of agriculture and textile
manufacturing. These activities used mainly wage labour
However, the reluctance of Indians to work outside their
communities led to the practice whereby Spanish employ-
ers advanced wages and credit to Indians and used [he
resulting debts, which the labourers could not repay, to
bring them into the workforce. In the peripheral areas,
expansion was driven by gpldmining in Ecuador and
Colombia and by the plantation production of sugar, coffee
and indigo in Mexico, the Central American isthmus, Cuba,
Venezuela. Colombia and Ecuador - all activities which
depended on imported slave labour and externa] markets.
These areas were integrated into the mainstream economy
in the I Nth century.
Thk PoBTUGlffiSB in Brazil
In brazil, which was developed much more slowh than
Spanish America, the Portuguese hegan by bartering tools
and trinkets for Indian-supplied dyewoods. However, the
indigenous market for manufactures was Boon saturated,
and from c. ISSll the colonists turned to sugar production,
the basis of the Xew World's first great plantation system.
The sugar industry depended entirely upon foreign
markets and dominated Brazil's economic and social
development until 1700. The early sugar plantations were
worked by Indian labourers, most of them enslaved.
However, their productivity was low because they came
from cultures with little experience of settled agriculture,
and their numbers were drastically reduced by exposure to
European diseases, particularly during the 1550s and 1 501 >s.
Consequently, by the early 17th century the colonists had
substituted imported African slaves, from around 1670 the
sugar industry was checked by competition from English
and French Caribbean producers, and thenceforth the main
impetus to Brazilian economic growth came from the
opening up of gold and diamond mines in the interior
regions of Minas Cerais and Coias. which were also worked
by imported slaves (mop 2),
Spanish Airmmm in the colonies
The economic and social development of the Spanish
colonies did not take place in a political vacuum. In the
early colonial period the Spanish crown had little
authority in Amcriea, The colonists observed the legal
forms, as when they founded ni;\\ townships, but in effect
nMmlco Or,
O ; r .
Sor*
H jATEMA!/
' r *i
•* In the I Btii century the structure of
colonial government in Spanish America was
reformed- The vkeroyulty nf New Granada
was treated in 1739 in the north ol Peru,
and in 1776 a fourth Ykeroynlly was
established in tr* Rio do la Halo region.
-GuowtKjIo Cay
0,
Caracas
On-Hoc
VICEROY* LTY '
Cartogdno
Pnr .-.in: I
VlCEROYALTY OF
they ru I ed t he m se I ves . They NE ^ qraNADA
largely ignored their chief
critics, the friars, who came
to the Americas to chris-
tianize the Indians in the
''spiritual conquest", and
most of whom deplored the
Spanish mistreatment of
the indigenous population.
The Spanish crown,
fearful that the conijiir'.st-
nr/orcs - the adventurers who
had conquered Mexico, Centra!
and South America - would form
an autonomous and hereditary aristo-
cracy, began from around 1550 to
impose its authority on irs American
acquisitions. The government's main
concern was to curb the colonists'
virtually unlimited powers over the
Indians, so it whittled away the quan-
tities of tribute and labour extracted
by the eneomeiWcnis and trans-
ferred numerous encormemiu.s
from private to Crown jurisdiction.
Kurthcrmore, a royal bureaucracy
was created to absorb the powers
formerly held by the coni/Hisf-
n i/orcs. Spanish America was
divided into viceroyalties
(itiiiij .1), each subdivided into
a small number of ttudioieias
- substantial areas adminis-
tered by ;i legal council - and
a larger number of correg-
imientos - rural districts with
urban centres governed
by catregidores.
From around 1641) Spain's authority in the Americas
weakened as important royal powers over the colonists were
commuted in exchange for fiscal payments, and as the prac-
tice of selling official posts to American-born Spaniards
became widespread. These posts were used to benefit their
holders, and their extended family networks, rather than to
enhance royal authority. Weak government led to a stagna-
tion in Spain's revenues from the Xew World and a decline
in the empire's capacity to defend itself. The consequences
of these developments liecame all too apparent in the Seven
Years War (1756-6.1), when Britain inflicted crushing
defeats on the Spanish in North America (pages 124-25 \.
This experience stimulated [he "bourbon Reforms", a pro-
gramme of economic and political reorganization through
which the Spanish erown attempted the bureaucratic recon-
quest of its American empire.
VICEROYALTY
OF BRAZIL
IBol.ivl "■
RcDc
Janeiro
Buencn Aim
2 Population of Spanish America
(. 1 800 (till i!ihi':h g!':w:> : .!'
Total population: i j,sdo,cwd
t i Weoco
i i 1 4iirinil forwwE
r~7 Ptini
CD Ottrer
V Aw™
© SPAIN AND THE AMERICAS 1492-1550 pages 120-21 © INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 1780-1830 pages 190-91
THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA
AND THE CARIBBEAN 1600-1763
< Ihe Spanish Empire in North Araerko
im vast, but il attracted lew Spanish
sslllers and inert was wtoally no ecanomit
dcvelopmonl outside f loridn. Hie Ffenrh
Empire, although large, was thinly
populated ond is limrltd Hotioaw
dcvelopmetil wos based an thing and ihe
1 60 jiDff | °* nir trade. By corrrrusl, Ihe British Empire
hod die least extensive territory - bul it
developed a rich, diverse and papulous
economy mid on ulesom overseas node.
White population growth 1 630-1 780
[in thousands)
1.400 r
AFRICAH-AMERiam/GkRIttUH POPULATION GROWTH
1650-1 770 (in thousands!
1M0 1460 16S0 1700 1720 1740 1740 1780
French Unh iswsti mdnbrd cobnes Inoriunv!
M4"i£
ImshCnibbHn Bi
-i 1 1 r
1669 1640 1700 1720 1740 1740 17BO
Following the discovery of the New World hy European
explorers at the end of the 1 5th eentury and beginning
of the 16th, Spain and Portugal had laid claim to all
of the Americas. However, this Iberian monopoly was not
accepted by the other European powers and in the second half
of the Kith century it was pierced by hundreds of voyages
dispatched front northern Europe. Ships were sent to trade or
pillage and even, in a few instances, to found colonies, although
none of the latter survived. Erom these beginnings Britain.
France and Holland founded empires in America and the
( laribbean in the 1 7th century. British colonics were set up in
two main waves: from 161)7 to 16,14, when settlements were
established in Virginia, Maryland, New England and the
eastern ( !aribl>ean; and from 1655 to 1680, when Jamaica was
seized from the Spanish, the (larolinas and Pennsylvania were
founded and New York was taken from the Dutch (rtmjj I ).
' French CjutAJi
trwidi Konti Atiwcd
Ilason)
i"~'' Emms
* Bnlw rancnp
(atones (wow
■4 Unlike the while papulation of Ihe
British mainland colonies, the population of
trench Cormda grew slowly because its
economy wis based on furs and Fish, which
required much less labour lhan agriculture
In the Stilish mainland colonies the slave
population increased ropidfy, bul in the
Caribbean harsh treoimem ond naokal
diseases prevented its natural growth and
encouraged the slave irode with Africa.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
In the early 17th century the French established fishing
and fur-trading colonies in Canada at New France and
Acadia (Nova Scotia) and settler colonies in the Caribbean
and the western portion of Hispaniola (map 2). The Dutch
established trading factories - as on Curacao - rather than
colonies, but they founded one major colony, Dutch Guiana,
taken from the British in 1665 (pages 122-23).
The northern colonies
Outside the southeast and southwest regions, the indigenous
people of North America (pages 108-9) lived mainly in semi-
sedentary or nomadic societies, and the North American
colonists never seriously attempted to live from their labour
as the Spanish colonists did in parts of South America. Some
Native Americans were enslaved - as in South Carolina - but
the main contacts between Europeans and Native Americans
were through the fur trade, where furs were supplied by
native trappers, and through warfare. In general the Native
Americans responded to the arrival and settlement of the
Europeans on the east coast by moving west, leaving depop-
ulated regions to be settled by migrants from Europe. These
migrants were mostly people seeking economic betterment
or freedom from religious persecution. Taking advantage of
the region's rich natural resources, they created prosperous
farming communities specializing in the production of grain,
livestock and timber, and benefiting from the relatively
disease-free environment of the region.
The plantation colonies
Conditions in the plantation colonies of the southern main-
land and the Caribbean were very different. Here disease was
rife, discouraging free migration and killing many of those
who did take the risks of settlement - mainly white inden-
tured servants who had little choice over their destinations
and provided several years of unpaid labour in exchange for
their passage and a plot of land at the end of their service.
Some 200,000 of these servants migrated to British plant-
ation colonies, fewer to the French Caribbean, and they were
employed in the production of tobacco and other plantation
staples for export to Europe. From around 1650, however,
there was a fundamental change in the labour system of the
plantation colonies. The shift from tobacco to sugar caused
an explosive increase in the demand for labour which could
not be met by Britain and France. This led to the use of
imported African slaves, first in the Caribbean and then,
from 1680, in Virginia and Maryland (pages 126-27).
Continued expansion
In the 18th century the populations of all the British main-
land colonies had fast natural rates of growth (graphs). In
the northern colonies this pushed agricultural settlement
into the interior. In the southern colonies the coastal regions
intensified the slave-plantation production of tobacco, to
which was added rice and indigo in South Carolina and
Georgia. Settlement also spread into the southern "back-
countries" - temperate mixed farming zones - whose
economic and social development was akin to that of the
northern colonies. The French mainland colonies in Canada
and Louisiana achieved a massive territorial expansion to
1763, but their demographic and economic development
was very slow. In the Caribbean, both the British and French
slave-plantation economies grew rapidly.
Colonial government
Neither Britain nor France exercised much political influ-
ence over their colonies until the 1660s, when France
established an authoritarian system with military governors
and powerful colonial officials accountable to the king.
Britain also created royal bureaucracies but their power was
shared with elected legislative assemblies. Both governments
subjected imperial trade to strict mercantilist controls,
requiring the colonies to trade exclusively with their mother
countries. The benefits reaped by Britain and France were
enormous because colonial trade was the fastest growing
sector of international commerce in the period.
Colonial trade had two dimensions: the export of slave-
produced staples such as tobacco and sugar from the
plantation colonies to the metropolis, and a reverse stream
of manufactured goods, services, and labour from Europe
and Africa to the colonies. The British northern colonies
exported relatively little to Britain, but they imported vast
quantities of manufactured goods from Britain, covering
their trade deficits by exporting foodstuffs, raw materials and
shipping services to the Caribbean and southern Europe.
The strengthening of government in North America also
had diplomatic consequences. Between 1689 and 1763
Britain and France fought four major wars - conflicts that
became increasingly focused on colonial disputes. Britain got
the better of these wars, especially the last, the Seven Years
War of 1756 to 1763 (map 3). However, post-war British
attempts to make their colonists share the burden of the
huge military costs of these endeavours also preciptated the
American Revolution (pages 164-65) and, with that, the
collapse of British imperial power on the mainland.
▲ During the 17th century the British and
the French made significant inroads into
Spanish territory in the Caribbean,
establishing colonies in Jamaica and
St Domingue as well as on the islands of
the Lesser Antilles. The economies of these
colonies were based heavily on sugar
plantations worked by African slaves.
T The Seven Years War, in which Britain
inflicted a number of crushing military and
naval defeats on France and Spain, brought
an end to the French Empire in mainland
America. Under the Treaty of Paris in 1 763,
Britain took Canada and all territory east of
the Mississippi, while Spain acquired the vast
territory of French Louisiana.
© EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD 1450-1600 pages 116-17 O AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1775-83 pages 164-65 Q CANADA 1763-1914 pages 18S-89
SLAVE ECONOMIES OF THE WESTERN
HEMISPHERE 1500-1880
f Between around 1 500 old 1 870 ol
leasl 9.5 mUm AMcpn sieves were lortihly
transported lo die European empires in ihe
Americas, It has been estimated that am
two mllon mare died, mauily horn disBase,
while crossing the Atlantic en grossly
overcrowded end insanitary ships. Hosl
were shipped to Ihe Caribbean and Brazil,
where high mortality rates among ihe slave
populations meant thai new slaves were
[oaslaalry being imported la replenish the
labour farce. Fewer slaves were imparled lo
British Noiir. America because better
conditions there allowed slave populations to
increase naturally.
Five major European empires were established in the
Amerloas between the 16th and 19th centuries
{tnup 1 ). In the eeonomies of four of these empires —
the Portuguese, Dutch, British and French - African slavery
was the most important form of labour. In the fifth - the
Spanish - African slaves played a significant and, in the
1 8th century, an increasing role. This occurred alongside
the exploitation of the indigenous population.
Slavery was an important element of European imperi-
alism in the Americas because of the scarcity of labour in
relation to the region's abundant natural resources
Exploitation of the indigenous population was a strategy
used in Spanish Mexico and Peru, where the sedentary and
economically advanced American Indian societies provided
labour and tribute payments to the Spanish as they had to
their former Aztee and Inca overlords. However, the semi-
sedentary and nomadic Native American peoples who
occupied much of .Spanish North America and overwhelm-
ingly predominated in the other empires, could not satisfy
the white colonists' demands for labour and commodities.
z
Britiih Ntortfi j^menco "
and United State*
\j G *tf »/
M
I
1 THE TliNSMUrfllC SLAVE TRADE
European Iwolnnei in Hie Alrffirims [. 1 / ?Q> _
K Inrnh
J] fiandi
I ftmri
faniiguee
| Spqnnh
SAO Numfar of slaves imported, in thouscnifc
■ 1500-1100 ■ 1701— 3ST0
~J 1601-1700 I ■ 1B11-I170
Atlantic
< ) v e Ll rl
-'■ 1 1*
British vfat tndi*i r-i
Caribbean ffea
rVtftftl Indies
- FnSncfi West Indie*
Trnptc d( Cancer
Total slave imports, by region
1509-1870
I in thousands)
fqtmrqr
Irapic of Capricorn
Attempts to enslave these peoples proved
unsuccessful in the long run. partly because
they exhibited fearful mortality rates in
captivity and partly because colonial govern-
ments generally opposed such enslavement,
A second source of labour was the large
number of European migrants to the more tem-
perate zones, such as the mainland colonies of
British America, but white migrants preferred to
become independent farmers rather than wage
labourers. The shortage of such labour was even
more acute in the tropical colonies, where the hot and
humid climate and the constant threat of disease
discouraged free migrants from settling.
The colonists therefore turned to a third source Of
labour: slaves from Africa. Since the late 15th century
African slaves had been used on plantations on European-
colon ixed Adantic islands such as Madeira and Sao Tome.
They proved to have tw r o great advantages for the European
colonists. First, they and their offspring, who were treated
as chattels, could be coerced into almost any form of work;
second, their supply was infinitely more elastic than the
availability of labour from indigenous or European sources.
TllK GROWTH OF THE SLAVE ECONOMIES
The first major slave economies were created in the
Spanish and Portuguese empires, which imported about
50(1,(11)0 slaves between around 1500 and 1650. The
Portuguese concentrated their slaves in the sugar plant-
ations of coastal Brazil, while the Spanish used theirs in a
number of regional economics, the most important of
which were the sugar and wine estates of the semi-tropical
coastal lowlands of Peru and Mexico and the silver mines of
northern Mexico.
The period between 1650 and 1810 saw a massive
expansion of slavery in all the major European empires in
the Americas (mup 2). The Portuguese expanded their
sugar plantation system in Brazil and, after 1700, imported
hundreds of thousands of slaves to work the diamond and
gold mines in the interior of the country in the Minns
Gerais and Goias regions. The vast majority of the Spanish-
owned sluves were employed not in Mexico and Peru but
on the sugar and cocoa plantations of Guba and Venezuela
and in the gold-mines of Colombia. These formerly peri-
pheral regions of the Spanish Empire l>eeame increasingly
important, entering the mainstream of the Spanish-
American economy in the IKth century. The British. Dutch
and i'reneh poured slaves into their Caribbean and
Guyanese colonics, where they produced sugar, coffee and
other plantation staples. On the northern mainland the
British and French colonists im ported smaller n um hers of
slaves into the tobacco- producing colonics of Virginia and
Maryland, the rice and indigo eeonomies of South Carolina
and Georgia and the sugar colony of Louisiana,
The demographics oe slavery
The conditions of life for slaves in the Americas, and in
particular their relative ability to produce new generations
of slaves, were determined by the lahotir requirements of
the plantation crops that they cultivated and the disease
environments in which they lived. Most were employed on
large-scale sugar and coffee plantations in the tropical and
semi-tropical zones, where their masters underfed and
overworked them, and where they were ravaged by dis-
eases such as dysentery and yellow fever. These slave
populations experienced high mortality and low fertility
rates, which meant that the expansion of labour forces
depended on a swelling stream of human imports from
Africa, from where over six million slaves were imported
between e. 1650 and e. 1SOO (mup I) The extent of the
natural decline of slave populations can be gauged from the
example of the British Caribbean colonies, which imported
some 1 .5 million slaves during this period, but hy 1800 had
an African-Caribbean population of just over 500,000.
Natural increase was experienced by only a small number
UN/TED STATES OF AMERICA
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTOID PART 3
2 Slave economies of the western hemisphere
iflrtmofBiial boundnrv { 1830
how-, art iv iv m *Mi. h itoK emplay^l
H sugar
^J rite and ifHlipo | imued upricullUK
H lobacc-D | wilnrj
| c-aftes
(3 Slme pop^nfiw (in tficuuviib) t.liSOD
(_} SIhe papukrhcm (in flrcuiisids) L.18&D
f< i 7JI Ste d sto* iwi* wilh dots
TE «:','«' *fe
jfi UNITED P^NCK
O? OF CENTRAL AME(t|CA
of the slave populations - for example, those
in the tobacco colonies of Virginia and
Maryland - who benefited from adequate food
supplies, an environment less conducive to disea.se
than was to he found in the tropical colonies, and a
less demanding labour regime.
Abolition and tiik slave tkade
The period from IS It) to 1880 represented the final
era of slavery in the Americas. Although a number of
Countries abolished their transatlantic slave trades
(Britain in 1807 and the United States in 1810, for
example), American slavery continued to expand. The
plantations of Brazil and of the Spanish and French
colonies in the Caribbean imported nearly two million
slaves between 1810 and 1860. In Cuba the slave popula-
tion more than doubled in these years, while in the same
period the slave population of the southern United States,
mainly engaged in eotton production, increased by natural
means from 0.9 to .1.7 million.
The abolition of the institution of slavery, as opposed
to that of the slave trade, was a long proeess which
extended from the 1820s up to the 1880s, The number of
slave revolts inereased in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries imaj) 2), but with the exception of the revolt
in 179] in French St Domingue (which was to become
the independent state of Haiti in 1804), none sueeeeded
in achieving local abolition. Instead, the end of slavery
was brought about partly by the economic decline of
the slave economies but largely by political events
- in particular, war and revolution. Several of the
newly independent Spanish-American republics
outlawed slavery between 1824 and 1829;
slavery in the British West Indies was abol-
ished by a reforming British government
in 18.14; and in the United States slavery
was ended in 18t*>5 by the victory of the
Union states over the Confederate
states in the American Civil War.
•4 h the 1 7th end 1 Blh centuries the
largest time populotiors were in Brazil,
the Caribbean and the southern British
mainland colonies [part of the Untied Slates
from 1783). Slave populations in the vosl
orea of Spanish mainland Amerka wete
quite modest by comparison. The brutal
candilions oi slavery Ihraughoul the
Americas caused frequent slave revolis
which were suppressed with great ferocity.
© TIIK AMERICAN CIVII, WAR 1861-65 pages IH4-J)S Q LATIN AMERICA AND TOE CARIBBEAN POST- INDEPENDENCE 18.10-1914 fittfe.* 192-93
THE GROWTH OF THE ATLANTIC ECONOMIES
1620-1775
T Dutch and English cities grew throughout
the 1 7th century, with migration from the
countryside causing an almost threefold rise
in London's population from 200,000 to
575,000, while that of Amsterdam rose
from 65,000 to 200,000. However, while
other English cities such as Bristol, Newcastle
and Exeter lagged far behind London both
in size and rates of growth, Amsterdam was
merely first among equals in the densely
urbanized Netherlands.
After more than a century of economic growth, 1620
saw the beginning of a period of economic crisis and
stagnation in many parts of Europe. The economic
decline of Spain and Italy was accompanied by the migra-
tion of skilled labour and capital to the north. English and
Dutch merchants broke into Mediterranean trade during the
Eleven Years Truce with Spain, from 1609 to 1621 (pages
156-57). The Dutch retained and expanded their share of
Baltic commerce to achieve a near-monopoly of the region's
trade by 1650, while English trade with the Baltic grew
significantly from the 1670s. This coincided with the rise of
Amsterdam and London as important world trading centres
(pages 132-33), and with a permanent shift in Europe's
economic centre of gravity from the Mediterranean to the
North Sea/Baltic zone - a shift reflected in population trends
(graph 1 and map 1).
The rise of Holland
The 17th century, often described as Holland's "golden age",
was also the period of England's "apprenticeship" to the
Dutch Republic. In the wake of the Dutch revolt against
Spain in 1572 and also after the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes by the French crown in 1685 (pages 154-55),
Protestant refugees were welcomed in the towns of southern
England and the northern Netherlands. Bringing with them
their expertise in new industries and industrial processes,
including brewing, papermaking, the manufacture of glass
and ceramics, and silk weaving, they made a significant
impact on the English economy. In an increasingly scientific
age, the Dutch capacity for visualization was highly valued,
showing itself in a range of skills associated with the "art of
describing": mapmaking, engraving, drawing, painting and
the making of scientific instruments. Dutch engineers were
active in promoting drainage and embankment works in
countries throughout Europe (map 2).
By the early 18th century an international division of
labour was emerging, shaped as much by government policy
as by market forces. In France and England especially, new
forms of economic nationalism had emerged during the
1 Population trends in Europe 1600-1790
1 The distribution of population in Europe c 1 650
?DpiA3tKinilsnsflY[.lt5rO: IWmti ppCRilcEhGci (. S6S0:
~^\ over 4 D persons p» sq km □ over 250,000 inlrabinints
I I 20-40 pawns pa sq tin O 50,000- 1 50,0011
^] 0-20 prams pa sq to o 10,000-50,000
^^
',-/.'•'-
Atlantic
p^r^
°
.... Nr- / gJUo ^,,,
A * „ °9fcq' p-' 7 3 OFI««,« tl
\J RcmeP
OVblereki Op> ^
^ #°
^ o Ckonotta
r • » * - * 4 °
B 06 S i U
.
Fronts
GwrroriY
U|
Span
' Etigkri
and Whs
▲ While the populations of Spain and the
Italian and German states declined sharply
during the period 1 600-50, those of
England and the Dutch Republic continued to
grow. From around 1650 populations in
southern Europe and Germany began to
increase, while overall numbers in England
and the Netherlands stagnated.
1660s and 1670s, embodied in policies designed to promote
overseas and colonial trade, and industrial diversification,
at the expense of competitors. Anglo-Dutch and Anglo-
French rivalry was sharpened by the imposition of
protectionist import duties and restrictions on the export of
raw materials, and above all by the English Navigation Acts
of 1651 and 1660 which sought to wrest the colonial carry-
ing trade from the Dutch. By the early 1670s the Dutch
economic miracle was over, and English merchants would
soon displace the Dutch as the dynamic force behind
European and world trade (graph 2).
Anglo-Dutch competition
Anglo-Dutch competition was evident in many fields,
including the North Sea herring fisheries, woollen textile
manufacture, textile dyeing and finishing, and by the 18th
century, sugar refining, tobacco processing and linen
bleaching. These activities all involved processing and as
such were fields in which the Dutch excelled by virtue of
their success in controlling the markets for finished
products. English industry, on the other hand, was more
deeply embedded in the domestic manufacturing economy,
and relied on the labour of rural households.
Trade rivalry and industrial competition created an
international climate in which warfare became endemic,
from the Anglo-Dutch wars of 1652, 1665-67 and 1672-74,
to the intermittent Anglo-French struggles of 1689-1815.
Military expenditure by the British state multiplied fivefold
between the 1690s and the Napoleonic Wars, and provided
a huge stimulus to the industrial and construction sectors.
Shipbuilding, the metallurgical and arms industries, civil
engineering and the building and supply of naval dockyards
stimulated employment, investment and innovation through
increased public spending.
As the Scottish political economist Adam Smith real-
ized, the Anglo-French wars of the 18th century represented
a struggle for economic supremacy as much as for political
power in Europe, India and North America. France was a
late starter in the race for colonial trade and territory, but
made remarkable progress during the middle decades of the
18th century, especially in the West Indies (graph 2).
Nevertheless, British domination of the Atlantic economy
was secure by the end of the Seven Years War (1756-63).
On the eve of the American War of Independence (1775-83)
British imports from the West Indies and the American
mainland colonies far exceeded those from either the North
Sea or Mediterranean zones, and the lion's share of British
manufactured exports went across the Atlantic.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
In the last resort, however, the European economies
were dependent on their natural resources and the legacy
of political history. This was especially true in the case of
agricultural and primary production, and the extent to
which nations and regions were able to commercialize these
sectors. Whereas the Dutch chose to develop a compact and
specialized agricultural sector and to depend on large-scale
food imports, the English chose agricultural self-sufficiency,
protectionism and, after 1689, the manipulation of food
prices in the interests of producers by means of subsidized
exports. French peasant agriculture, on the other hand, con-
strained by labour-intensive farming methods and a host of
geographical, political and institutional limitations, was
strongly resistant to commercialization. Above all, it was on
the basis of plentiful energy sources that Britain was able to
surge forward towards industrialization. The availability of
coal released British producers from dependence on organic
materials such as timber and charcoal at a time when Dutch
peat supplies were becoming exhausted. In short, the Dutch
Republic faced the limitations of a city-state underpinned
by merchant capital - just as Britain was emerging as a
strong nation-state, with a developing industrial base.
2 Overseas trade estimates 1 620-1 790
£ millksn (CDtttoii pkk)
andWoln
Fnra
•>---.
I (CD
■4S3
I /DC
1750
— 1
1800
2 The Atlantic economies 1 650-1 750
Awns of tactile production'
^\ Area of rnannl production
a Area diamed hy Dutch m!;inf!i:".
fluollei ■
Q nHonulwltiirt rf nun wora
mi Ifw 1 7 th century
| irttn
| Codrruning
| Main herons fishing graundi
■i. V .11
— *•- Cod mode
■J Principal part
o *
A In the two centuries before 1 800 English
overseas trade expanded steadily while that
of the Dutch Republic stagnated. France's
overseas trade accelerated more rapidly
than England's in the 1 8th century, showing
a fivefold increase during the period from
1 71 6 to 1 788 - double the increase
registered for England at this time.
-4 In the period 1 650-1 750 there were
several highly commercialized centres of
production in western Europe, but rural
industry, particularly the processing of
textile fibres, was to be found throughout
Britain and northwest Europe. Woollen cloth,
linens, fustians and silk were the main
textiles produced. Coalmining was
concentrated in England and Scotland, from
where coal was exported to nearby Europe.
▲ During Holland's "golden age" in the
17th century, Dutch merchants -such as
the one on the right in this painting - were
to be found throughout the world, from the
Baltic to the Americas and Asia. However,
from the 1650s their dominant role in
European and world trade was increasingly
threatened by the English.
© EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 © THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN 1750-1850 pages 168-69
THE RISE OF EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL
EMPIRES 1600-1800
T In the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries the
countries of northwest Europe were at the
centre of an expanding world economy,
often able to trade on terms that were
heavily in their favour. In many of the
colonized parts of the Americas and Asia
the production of a narrow range of
primary products for export markets was
encouraged, thus planting the seeds of
future economic dependency and
backwardness.
The geographical discoveries by Europeans in the late
15th and early 16th centuries gave Europe access to
many new sources of wealth: land, precious metals
and new products such as coffee and tobacco. However, in
the rush to exploit all these, the rivalry between the
European states produced a world divided into commercial
empires. In the short term the discoveries probably acted
as a drain on European commercial and financial resources,
particularly those of Spain and Portugal. The profits from
the silver mines of Spanish America and the Portuguese
spice trade were substantial for those directly involved, but
while the outflow of precious metals from the Americas may
have quickened economic activity in Europe, it also inten-
sified the inflationary pressures that were already present.
Overall, the growth of transoceanic trade (map 1 ) made
little impact on the European economy before the 1550s,
and it has been suggested that it was not until the late 17th
century that commercial and industrial profits from
European trade with Asia and the Americas became visible
and significant, initiating a commercial revolution. By this
time the benefits resulting from Iberian overseas trade and
investment had become more widely diffused across
Europe, accruing principally to the Dutch Republic,
followed closely by England and, later, France.
New commercial organizations
Whereas Spain and Portugal relied on the formation of gov-
ernment agencies to promote colonial and commercial
enterprise, the newer colonial states adapted existing forms
of corporate organization to serve new purposes. In this
respect, the English and Dutch East India Companies
(formed in 1600 and 1602 respectively) can be seen as fore-
runners of the modern multinational corporations. Owned
by shareholders, managed by boards of directors and
employing accountants and other salaried workers, these
independent companies wielded great political power at
home and abroad. Their efficiency and the impact of their
monopoly powers have been questioned, but they undoubt-
edly played an important role in the expansion and
integration of the global economy.
Trade in the Far East was enmeshed with politics and
diplomacy, and required powerful trading bodies to act on
behalf of states. However, this was not the case in the
colonies of North America and the Caribbean where, with
the exception of the Dutch West India Company
(1621-1791), trade was conducted mainly by private, unin-
corporated merchants. Such merchants operated through
social networks that were formed on the basis of religious,
family and other personal ties. Before 1700 the bulk of
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
transatlantic commerce was conducted by British
merchants operating through colonial agents, but local
merchants increased their share of trade from the early
years of the 18th century, especially in the northern
colonies. Although institutionalized monopoly powers were
not necessary for the development of trade with North
America, the English Navigation Act of 1651 (prohibiting
imports to England from outside Europe unless carried in
English ships) effectively established a national monopoly
which played an important role in undermining Dutch
competition during the following century.
As the world economy expanded the Americas, Europe
and the Far East became inextricably linked through trade,
shipping and bullion flows. Silver bullion from the mines of
Central and South America enabled the northern European
economies to buy goods from Asia and the Baltic (map 2).
Imports from the Baltic region, such as timber for ship-
building, iron ore and naval stores, contributed to the
further expansion of long-distance trade, while the flow of
Asian imports - silk, calico, spices and drugs - brought con-
sumer goods to Europe and North America. It was not until
the second half of the 18th century that the amount of silver
bullion exported to Asia fell sharply, compensated for by
rising exports of British manufactured goods.
A
5\ -
MANCHU
QING'CNflA
j J ;
■'. -. Cannyi * 1 'Formosa
Pact/ic
f ) ..■ t* a n
Tropic of Concof
■w ^s^*---*.
Mariano
™. New
Guinea '<
fa-
NEW HOLLAND
Tn l*°f Cephas
The stimulus to commercial expansion
A major stimulus behind the commercial revolution of the
1 7th century was an increase in consumer demand. In spite
of demographic stagnation in Europe, towns and cities
continued to expand (pages 132-33), and as they did so
new patterns of consumption and social behaviour evolved.
Contributing to the diversification of consumption habits
was the arrival of new and exotic commodities such as
spices, tobacco, tea, coffee, sugar, tropical fruit, dyestuffs
and Asian textiles. Such commodities resulted in, for
example, the development of coffee houses, more fashion-
able clothing and household furnishings, and new domestic
rituals such as tea-drinking. Maize and potatoes helped to
feed Europe's growing population in the 18th century,
without competing with home-produced foodstuffs. New
industries such as sugar refining, tobacco processing, cotton
manufacture and textile printing developed as a result of
long-distance trade and colonial development.
However, despite the benefits of trade with Asia and the
Americas, economic growth in Europe depended mainly on
trade within Europe itself, and on improvements in
domestic agriculture and manufacturing. Long-distance
trade was expensive, not always profitable, and did not con-
tribute a great deal to capital formation within those
countries which were at the core of the world economy.
Competition between the European states - and the conse-
quent need to defend, administer and control colonial
territories - involved increased public expenditure and
more complex government administration. Furthermore,
the growing European demand for imported products
resulted in balance of payments problems for the countries
involved, to which there were two obvious solutions: to
increase the volume of re-exported goods, and to provide
shipping services. In this sense, the commercial revolution
generated its own momentum.
Government involvement in commerce
The countries that gained most from this economic expan-
sion were nation-states such as France and England, which
were capable of developing the machinery of strong central
government alongside aggressive mercantilist policies.
Mercantilism aimed to increase employment through the
encouragement of overseas trade, especially the import of
essential raw materials, while protecting home industry by
the imposition of high import duties. In comparison with
the English and French variants, Dutch mercantilism
remained weak and incidental, particularly in the colonial
field. The decentralized federal structure of the United
Provinces, together with the deeply entrenched interests of
its merchants overseas, inhibited the kind of aggressive
unity that was partly behind the increasing power of its
larger neighbours - France and England.
A Coffee houses were representative o( the
new social habits that evolved in Europe in
the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries as a result of
the import from Asia and the Americas of
commodities then regarded as exotic.
T Silver from the mines of Central and
South America reached Europe via Spain
and Portugal, where it entered the arteries
of world trade. The Dutch, who were the
dominant commercial power in Europe,
operated as Europe's bankers in circulating
coin and bullion, using it to purchase goods
from three principal areas: the Baltic, the
Middle East and East Asia.
'CI'
Poe i. n,
Qcea fi
2 World siivir flows 1650-1750
— ► StnrlH
© THE EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF THE WORLD 1450-1600 pages 116-17 © WORLD TRADE AND EMPIRES 1870-1914 pages 208-9
EUROPEAN URBANIZATION
1500-1800
-4 Die process of urbanization in Europe
involved three overlapping phases. In the
first of these, from 1 500 to around 1650,
there was general growth of towns and
cities of all sizes. In the second phase,
between 1650 and 1750, a few large cities
- most notably London, Paris and
Amsterdam - expanded rapidly, while in
the third phase there was an increase in the
size and number of smaller cities and a
relative levelling off in the growth of larger
cities. In the 16th century the most
urbanized regions in Europe - defined by
the percentage of the total population
resident in towns and cities - were the
northern and southern Netherlands, and
Italy. From the early 1 7th century,
however, urban growth subsided in the last
two regions while cities in the northern
Netherlands expanded rapidly, in common
with those of England and Scotland. By
comparison, only moderate urbanization
took place in France.
1-3 European us ionization
1500-1700
Pwefitoge of population hug in turns,
byiKiion;
l~n 0-W ■ IS-Zffli
3 1-5* ■ !<>-»
■ 5-10% | Jh-W-
P~l tO-ISS ■ our 30%
fcwi flitti popiiatnii d4'.
• B.OOOHO.GOO
• (0,000- ZOO.OOQ
■ 2M,rjO0-*0O,OO0
■ met 100,000
▲ In the mid-1 8th century the Monument
- a column erected to commemorate the
Great Fire of London of 1 666 - was
surrounded by spacious brick and stone
buildings that were a great improvement on
the wooden structures that had stood in their
place before the Fire. There were, however,
many features of London that continued to
pose a threat to the health and safety of its
citizens, including the streets that were often
rutted dirt tracks strewn with mounds of
rubbish. The standard of sanitation was very
poor and was to be the cause of many
outbreaks of cholera and typhus throughout
the 18th and 19th centuries.
By the early 16th century a European-centred world
economy was emerging, characterized not only by the
rise of transoceanic trade but also by new and dis-
tinctive patterns of urban growth in Europe itself. Between
1500 and 1800 the towns and cities of Europe came to form
a single urban system, involving the integration of regional
trading networks and the commercialization of predomi-
nantly rural economies.
In 1500 the most urbanized regions in Europe were Italy
and the Netherlands, but from the early 17th century the
potential for urban growth began to move steadily north-
wards, with the northern Netherlands becoming the most
urbanized area while rates of urban growth in Italy and the
southern Netherlands subsided (maps 1-4). The Dutch
Republic (the northern Netherlands) approached a ceiling
in the mid-17th century because in the preceding century
there had been no increase in the number of smaller centres
from which cities could develop. England, by contrast, con-
tained hundreds of market towns and industrial villages
capable of expansion. By the early 19th century the rate of
urban growth in Britain had reached that attained by the
Dutch a century earlier, but at a much higher level of popu-
lation. Between 1680 and 1820 the population of England
and Wales grew by 133 per cent, while that of the Dutch
Republic increased by only 8 per cent. In both countries,
however, a single dominating commercial centre had
emerged by 1700.
The growth of London and Amsterdam
London's meteoric growth (map 5) overshadowed that of all
its rivals, including Paris (graph). In 1600 about 5 per cent
of the English population lived in London; by 1700 this pro-
portion had reached 10 per cent, much higher than in other
European capital cities apart from Amsterdam, which
contained 8 per cent of the Dutch population. Paris, by
comparison, contained only 2.5 per cent of the French
people. The exceptional position of London may account for
the rapid development of the English economy in the late
17th and 18th centuries, at a time when London was
absorbing half the natural increase of the entire population.
This rapid expansion led to problems of overcrowding
and insanitary conditions, bringing disease and high death
rates. It was therefore only through substantial migration
from the countryside that London and other large cities
could continue to grow. A more healthy environment for
Londoners only began to evolve with the replacement of
timber by brick as a building material, and the introduction
of building regulations after the Great Fire of London in
1666. In Amsterdam, efforts to create a more carefully
planned city intensified after 1613, when construction of
the spacious outer girdle of canals began.
The changing role of cities
From the 14th to the 19th centuries the European economy
was dominated by a sequence of leading mercantile cities:
Venice, followed by Antwerp, Genoa, Amsterdam, and
finally London. However, these cities were gradually over-
taken by nation states in the deployment of commercial
wealth, capital and military power. In Germany towns and
cities lost their autonomy as princes absorbed them into
petty feudal states, while in Italy the towns themselves
became city states. The Dutch Republic, forged in the
struggle against Spanish centralization in the late 16th
century, emerged as something of a hybrid, a federation of
city states dominated by Amsterdam as first among equals.
As Europe's commercial and financial centre of gravity
shifted from Amsterdam to London in the early 18th
century, a strong territorial state and an integrated national
economy provided the resources for a new type of com-
mercial metropolis, the modern "world city".
In the advanced pre-industrial economies of Europe,
dominant cities acted as centres of innovation in many
fields, especially in the luxury trades, textile finishing, sci-
entific instrument making, printing, and the fine and
decorative arts. Since the 12th century, when universities
had begun to take over the educational role of the monas-
teries, European cities had played a key role in the
dissemination of knowledge. To their traditional educational
function was added, from the later 17th century, a growing
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
4 European
URBANIZATION 1800
Pwtanfoge of populqiian living in
awm. by ragia
■
1 1 0-K
_l
ID-15X
1 1 2S-W.
□ i-ss
■
1S-2W
□ 5-IDS
Z0-2iS
W nrh poputewurf:
8,000-
*0.0OD
• 200.000-400.(100
• 40.0DO
-200,000
■ ay?
400,000
-4 In the period 1750-1850 the majority
of large cities grew at much the same rate
as the population as a whole, while smaller
centres experienced a much higher rate of
growth. The notable exception to this rule
was London, whose meteoric growth
continued unabated.
The growth of European cities
1500-1800
m K:
o
1 1 1 1 J 1
tomb
^^ Ancfsfdnm
P-DTtS
— Iston
Naples
^— Mndfid
Vienna
■^— Verne
T The population of London expanded
from about 120,000 in 1 550 to 575,000 by
1 700. This latter figure represented 1 per
cent of the English population, a uniquely
high proportion in comparison with other
European capital cities at the time.
public sphere of political debate, scientific discourse, and
literary and aesthetic criticism. Newspapers first made their
appearance in London in the 1620s, and by the 1690s they
were carrying regular advertisements for a wide range of
goods and commercial ventures, including books, medi-
cines, lotteries, real estate and auction sales. Amsterdam led
the way in the circulation and analysis of commercial
information, as informal business correspondence was
transformed into printed lists of commodity prices from
1613 onwards.
New urban centres
As population levels rose in Europe after 1750 a new pattern
of urban growth began to unfold. Expansion was no longer
confined to the larger cities; indeed, it was the growth of
small cities and the emergence of new urban centres which
lay behind an overall increase in the pace of urbanization.
There are two possible explanations for this, both arising
from the overall growth in population. First, there was an
increased demand for food, which in turn stimulated the
rural sector and the expansion of regional marketing and
administrative centres. Second, the clustering of rural pro-
ducers in and around industrial villages during the
preceding century had created the basis for several new
manufacturing centres that were now able to emerge in
response to growing markets.
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O URBAN COMMUNITIES IN WESTERN EUROPE 1000-1500 pages 102-3 © WORLD POPULATION GROWTH AND URBANIZATION 1800-1914 pages 210-11
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE 1500-1770
I Centres of learhinc cJ 770
kHmayfanM:
• Mm 1400
• 1400-1500
• isoi-iiiiuw
o 1601-1770 Mi dm)
Aradesrw of Some blinded:
O 1600-1 770 (wi* das)
Barunitol garden bunded:
A 1500-1600
A 1601-1 W
▲ From the mid-1 6th century botanical
gardens were established in many university
towns, and in the following century
academies of science added a new
dimension to the range of institutions which
promoted learning. The most important of
these were the Roman Accademia dei Lincei
(1 603), the Accademia del Cimento in
Florence (16S7), the Royal Society of
London (1 660) and the Academie Royale
des Sciences in Paris (1665).
Between the early 16th and mid-18th centuries there
was a remarkable growth both in the understanding
of the natural world and in the capacity to exploit it.
In 1500 the study of mathematics was well established in
major universities across Europe (map 1 ) and by the end of
the 16th century it was a central discipline in both
Protestant and Catholic centres of learning. The idea that
the world should be represented geometrically formed a
central strand of the Renaissance and was especially influ-
ential in the development of perspective representation by
Italian painters and architects. The research of a number of
people - including Nicolaus Copernicus (in Krakow),
Johannes Kepler (in Tubingen and Prague), Galileo Galilei
(in Padua and Florence) and Isaac Newton (in Cambridge) -
suggested that God's Creation had been made according to
a mathematical blueprint. England was briefly predominant
in the field of natural philosophy following the publication of
Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1687, but in the 18th
century cities as far apart as Basel, St Petersburg, and Paris
became centres of European scientific creativity.
Centres of learning
The works of Aristotle formed the basis of the university
curriculum until the end of the 17th century, when
Cartesian and then Newtonian doctrines began to take hold
in most of Europe. A number of factors were involved in
bringing about this shift: new discoveries, as well as a more
critical attitude to ancient texts, progressively weakened the
credibility of Aristotelian styles of explanation, while the
development of print and paper production meant that
information was available to unpreeedentedly large numbers
of people, particularly the new urban elites. Moreover, with
the exception of Newton's research at Cambridge,
innovation in the exact sciences ceased to be university-
based after the late 16th century. Instead, the princely
courts in Germany and Italy became the major centres of
creative work, while the Roman Accademia dei Lincei at the
start of the 17th century was the first of a number of acad-
emies, both metropolitan and provincial, which promoted
learning in natural philosophy and astronomy (map 1).
Little of note could have been achieved without networks
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
of correspondence which connected individuals in all the
major European cities, the most significant being those
organized in the 17th century by Marin Mersenne, Samuel
Hartlib and Henry Oldenburg. Many of these letters were
printed in philosophical journals - the Journal des Savants
and the Philosophical Transactions - which were estab-
lished in the 1660s.
The development of botany
From the late 15th century European voyages to the
Americas, Africa and Asia (pages 116-17) provided novel
and extraordinary facts which greatly supplemented and
even contradicted the existing Classical texts. Botany was
galvanized by information and samples pouring in from
places outside Europe. From the Americas came maize,
potatoes, runner beans, pineapples and sunflowers, and by
1585 peppers from South America were being cultivated
in Italy, Castile and Moravia. New drug plants included
guaiacum, Chinese root and sarsaparilla. Botany was
practised at universities with strengths in medicine, and
botanical gardens were set up to cultivate rare and exotic
plants (map 1). Books such as Leonard Fuchs's De Historia
Stirpium, published in 1542, pioneered naturalistic
depictions of plants, and the number of plants recorded in
such books expanded from less than a thousand in 1500 to
the 6,000 recorded in Gaspard Bauhin's Pinax of 1623.
Scientific instruments
Throughout the 17th and early 18th centuries systematic
observation and the use of experimentation and the micro-
scope accelerated the development of botanical and
zoological knowledge across Europe. At the same time the
development of the telescope revolutionized the study of
astronomy, with major new astronomical discoveries made
by scholars in London, Danzig, The Hague and Rome.
Research into the existence and nature of a vacuum
linked developments in natural philosophy to those in tech-
nology. A vacuum was impossible in the Aristotelian system,
but in the 1640s experimenters in France argued that the
space at the top of a tube inverted in a bowl of mercury was
void of matter. At about the same time Otto von Guericke of
Magdeburg began trials with the evacuation of air from a
copper surrounding. His ideas were taken up by Robert
Boyle and Robert Hooke in Oxford, who constructed an
air-pump with a glass receiver in 1659. The Dutchman
Christiaan Huygens supervised the construction of a pump
at the Academie Royale in Paris in 1665, and a number of
instrument makers sold different sorts of pumps in Paris in
the 1670s. London, Paris, Leipzig and Leiden all became
particularly influential centres of pump construction in the
18th century, while London alone became the most
important general site of instrument manufacture (map 2).
Industrial technology
There were also momentous developments in the area of
industrial technology. As pits were dug deeper and deeper
to extract coal and minerals such as tin and lead, steam
engines emerged as a response to the need to rid mines of
water. At the start of the 17th century a number of people
considered the possibility of using steam to raise water,
either for clearing mines or for producing fountains and
cascades for aristocratic gardens. It is no coincidence that
a pioneer of air-pump design, Denis Papin, was also
extremely influential in the early history of the steam
engine. Having worked on air-pumps with Boyle and
Huygens in the 1670s, he wrote an article in 1690 describ-
ing how steam could raise a piston which would then be
allowed to fall due to atmospheric pressure.
Papin's article may well have influenced Thomas Savery,
who produced the first workable apparatus for raising water
by fire at the end of the 1690s. Savery was the latest in a
line of engine constructors based around London, and
although his machine was practical in limited situations, it
was of no help in deep mines and suffered repeatedly from
boiler explosions.
It was the Englishman Thomas Newcomen's piston-
driven atmospheric engine which would transform industry
in the period before James Watt's innovations revolution-
ized the design of steam engines towards the end of the 18th
century. Newcomen's first working engine was installed in
Staffordshire in 1712 (map 2). The design of Newcomen's
engine was a closely guarded secret, and for the first 15
years no machine outside Britain was made to work without
the support and maintenance of a British engineer. The
success of the Newtonian system and the domination
enjoyed by the British in the art of engine design throughout
the 18th century are indicative of the geographical shift in
innovative science and technology which had drifted north-
wards from Italy at the end of the 16th century.
-4 Thomas Newcomen's engine consisted of
a cylinder fitted with a piston, which was
attached to a counterweighted rocking
beam. This, in turn, was connected to a
pumping rod. Steam created in the cylinder
(arced the piston up; cold water was then
used to condense the steam, creating a
vacuum in the cylinder. Atmospheric
pressure subsequently caused the piston to
move down, so raising the other end of the
rocking beam and lifting the pumping rod.
T From the 1650s the air-pump was
developed in a number of European cities
and by the 1 670s air-pumps were on sale in
Paris. The Musschenbroek brothers then
developed another centre of production in
Leiden, which became the most important
supplier of air-pumps, telescopes and
microscopes in Europe.
The first Newcomen engine was installed
in 1 71 2 at Dudley Castle in Staffordshire
and the design was quickly taken up by
coalfields and other mining operations
across the north of England, although the
engine's appetite for fuel was colossal. Its
running costs were, however, a major
obstacle to its diffusion across Europe.
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2 Scientific and tkhnolosiul innovations 1 650-1 735
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A I6-S0— 17ID • IM2-1S
• 1716-21
Q 1724-35
© URBAN COMMUNITIES IN WESTERN EUROPE 1000-1500 pages 102-3 © THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN 1750-1850 pages 168-69
AFRICA
1500-1800
A if n
O o e it n
, Tripoli
' « r r " » e q „ g « a
Alexaidno V^
aom
. °$ t V
' .'Murauk
EGYPT
m.:;jIu_'.:.j
s
Ghat
•
* I
Bilmo
G«
^ Old Ora
PAHtMeT * '*™
ASANTf ,,e
Whyaab - Benin Off
1
l>
Fl " ,m CapaC™!
« fwnanJo A4q|
rwufru
Manawd.
- FTHI0FIA
sue* "
Zcilc
(Wbera
« «
1 PtOPUS, KINGDOMS MID ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 1 SCO- 1 800
NOOtaplea
flgdcm
* Bait,
*■ Donkeys
5*
-- Millet
^ Me
• km
»' Soghim
ff HarSK
m
O Cation
K fours
□ ConpB
-* infill ik*
W Cam*
O hwr
Ptantrwi
& Sheep
* Timber
t? BdHDJIDi
■■< fish
Pah ail
^^ tnsela
O Kow(
O Ha
r Cgnni«
* Lealtiei
© m«
^ Hum
IUBA
NOONO ° tUNBA
KAMNIf
Magodiillu
BUGANVA
n
*
4NKOU u l!*i
KIKUn/
*
4VAND*'- O
BUeUWOI
*(
,|J"
Jnwnt^Kr
Hmbq
^ JaUirbor
\
Bnnguoln
WpjO»«Jique
A Premodem slate; in Africa had
fluctuating spheres of influence which are
difficult to plat on maps. A city-state such as
Kano, a market empire such as Asonte and
a shrine lawn such us Ire might retain u
fixed central location - but the ruling courts
ol ihe Amhoro ol Ethiopia, or the Monde af
Mali, or ihe Lunda of Conga regularly
moved from place to place in the manner of
medieval European royalty. Specialists in
animal husbandry surh as the fukrni of
Wesi Africa. Ihe Somali ol Easl Alrico or the
Tswona of South Afrko became even mare
mobile than the rulers ol farming
communities as they sought out the best
ecological opportunities far grazing their
camels and cattle. In contrast lo this.
Fisherman and miners had fixed settlements
and defended their economic assets.
KMOr
the three centuries
after 1500 were
marked hy at)
increase in interaction
between Africa's peoples and
those of the outside; world,
though this increase should not
he exaggerated, On the east
coast there was no radical change
in the pattern of cultural and com-
mercial exchange that had existed
since rhe time of the Roman Empire,
hut Indians and Europeans encouraged
the tun her exploitation of Hast Africa's
copper mines, mangrove forests, elephant
herds, gold deposits and shore-line fisheries
{mup 1 ). Foreigners also exploited opportunities to recruit
voluntary, and more especially involuntary, migrant labour
to serve as ships' crews and pearl divers, as household slaves
and eoneuhines, or as field hands in the coconut groves and
date plantations of the Middle East.
The central interior of Africa was only indirectly affected
hy the globalization of Africa's external relations before
1800, Local merchants and kingdoms fought over salt
cjuarries. iron mines and fishing lakes. Africa's ongoing agri-
cultural revolution took a new leap forward when traditional
grains such as millet and sorghum were supplemented by
the slow diffusion of tropieal grains from the Americas such
SHQNA
n
TSWANA m'
^ NOOHI
dP m. -r
■ '-'■■ i
thy
Fori Dauphin
XMHA
as flour maize and flint maize, while
the traditional crops of root yam and
vcgetahle banana were augmented by new
carbohydrates processed from cassava
The influence <»k Islam ami Christianity
In the northern third of tropical Africa, Islam slowly perco-
lated along the ever-changing dust tracks of the Sahara, up
the cataracts of the Nile and down the sailing routes of the
Red Sea to bring new spiritual energy, theological ideas,
commercial codes of practice, jurisprudence, the Arabic
alphabet and mosi|ite-based scholarship to the towns of
Africa. Perambulating scholars settled in Timbuktu and
Kano, where local holy men synthesized their own customs
with those of Mediterranean Islam- Islamic art and archi-
tecture spread too - as seen in the great minarets of the
Niger Valley, regularly coated in river clay, and the palaces
of the Swahili east coast, which were built of carved coral.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
In western Africa, Christianity was the vehicle for
religious change and adaptation. In the Kongo kingdom,
one faction seized power in 1506 with the help of foreign
priests who subsequently built chapels and schools, created
a small bureaucracy and archive, and developed powerful
Christian rituals to match local ones. A hundred years later
the Papacy sent Capuchin friars to Kongo and the
surrounding principalities with a view to spreading the new
religion into the provincial and rural areas. Rustic tradi-
tionalists proved more resistant to religious change than
ambitious townsmen, however, and Christianity created
factionalism, discord and eventually a civil war.
Trade and colonization
The impact of European merchants on the Atlantic
seaboard of Africa was older, and initially more pervasive,
than that of Christianity. Much merchant activity was
carried out at open beaches off which 200-tonne sailing
vessels anchored; on lagoons where canoes plied, carrying
merchandise and slaves; and in creeks where timber vessels
that were no longer seaworthy were permanently anchored
as floating storehouses. On the Gold Coast (map 2) the
pattern of trade was different, with around 40 gold-trading
fortresses being built by European trading nations. Among
the greatest of these castle-warehouses was Cape Coast
Castle, the headquarters of the English. Its installations
were matched by the fortifications and slave-trading houses
of the French on the island of Goree and, in the south, the
Portuguese fortress at Luanda, which was to become Africa's
largest slave-exporting harbour on the Atlantic Ocean.
During the 16th and 17th centuries three attempts at
colonization of parts of Africa were made by foreigners. The
Ottomans spread through North Africa during the early
16th century, capturing cities from Cairo to Algiers and
creating an empire which only began to break up when
Napoleon attacked Egypt in 1798. The next great coloniz-
ing episode was the Portuguese attempt to gain and retain
commercial dominance on both the western and eastern
flanks of Africa after 1570. Unlike the Ottomans, the
Portuguese were unable to conquer significant parts of the
mainland, though they attempted to do so in both Morocco
and Ethiopia. They did, however, create Creole communi-
ties on the islands and in a few fortress towns, notably along
the Zambezi River. The part of Africa most vulnerable to
foreign attack proved to be Angola, where Portuguese mer-
chants became conquistadores in the Spanish-American
style. The third episode of early colonization was carried out
by the Dutch, who between 1637 and 1652 captured three
strategic points - the gold-trading castle of Elmina, the slave
harbour of Luanda and the prospective military base at
Cape Town. Although the Portuguese were able to recover
Luanda in 1648 and resume their conquest of Angola, the
Dutch influence there proved pervasive. At Cape Town the
creolized Dutch remained a distinctive segment of the
population after the British captured the city in 1806.
The African response to the European opening of the
Atlantic to long-distance shipping was to build their
markets, their cities and their royal capitals away from the
coast and beyond the range of direct foreign interference.
In Angola, where European armies penetrated 300 kilo-
metres (200 miles) inland, the greatest of the African
trading empires built the royal compounds of Lunda beyond
the reach of the conquistadores. In Asante, by contrast, the
resistance to invasion was so effective that a royal city with
permanent palaces could be safely established at a strategic
crossroads little more than 150 kilometres (100 miles) from
the coast. The Asante Empire was able to absorb several
older kingdoms which had been brokers between the coast
and the interior. The empire of Oyo partially eclipsed the
ancient trading city of Benin and absorbed the powerful
shrine city of Ife; a brash new trading state was created in
Dahomey and attracted Latin American and European
merchants anxious to buy prisoners of war in exchange for
firearms and gunpowder as well as textiles and luxuries.
Consequences of the slave trade
The period 1500-1800 saw an enormous increase in the
scale of the American, Mediterranean and Asian purchase
of slaves. In some areas, such as Angola, the consequence
was a demographic haemorrhage as thousands of people
were sold abroad each year, thereby undermining the capac-
ity of communities to renew themselves. In Guinea the slave
trade caused such acute social malaise that small commu-
nities became dominated by secret societies which
manipulated a rising fear of witchcraft. In the Niger Basin
whole communities were devastated by raids which caused
death, famine and disease on a spiralling scale. In contrast
to this, some successful broker kingdoms built up their
agrarian economies with new crops and preserved their pop-
ulation by refusing to sell young women captives abroad.
In the long term, however, the effects of the slave trade
were to entrench violence as a way of life and create a dam-
aging intellectual climate which presumed that white people
were superior to black people. The decolonizing of the
minds of both the perpetrators and the victims of the slave
trade was to be a slow process, further delayed by the colo-
nial interlude which affected Africa during the first half of
the 20th century.
N U P E
B O R G U
OYO
Amah
....Kiimo** j,
DENKYIRA ^ P-
AKIM
A.; ' 'u ^^WQ
Winrwba^, •LKThriitinnibDrg
ComrtWida 9 *tapa Coast Caslle
Shoma^ _ "
fA E V
Elmina
,\i
Co
is*
,#
WSydah
Bight of Benin
IGBO
Slave C
o a
it
OWColobof
2 Toww and raws «ntkis of the Gom and Slave Coasts 1 500-1 800
hKSCBarsnimO' • Bnmh ■ FieaA • Dvtrt • Oomh • fauguse
AKI P&opki or kingdwT
Fernando Pop
A When the Portuguese first arrived in
Benin City in 1 486 they found u
sophisticated and wealthy kingdom. Royal
patronage was the basis for the production
of elaborate sculptures and artefacts, and
the demand for copper and brass for this
work formed the basis for early trade with
the Portuguese. This 1 6th-century ivory
carving, probably intended for the
European market, shows a Portuguese
soldier engaged in the slave trade.
-4 Die Gold Coast and the Slave Coast were
the most intensively exploited parts of the
African seaboard. Here Europeans built
fortified castle-warehouses to protect their
chests of gold and stocks of textiles from
plunder and to serve as warehouses,
cantonments, slave-pens and well-appointed
residences for European governors.
O WEST AFRICA 500-1500 pages 80-81 © EAST AFRICA 500-1500 pages 82-83 © AFRICA 1800-80 pages 204-5
MING AND MANCHU QING CHINA
1368-1800
JAPAN
1 Trade and production centres in the Ming period
BourKloiy af area under Ming ride \ fiOD
S3 Hear trading [Bide _J Main aiea af ceramic pioduLiicn
Jl Shipbuilding centre _J Main area af agricultural production
p& Wain trading route
Symbols in ■ rearflienr exports
Syrniols in ■ represent import
H copper 4 timber # ronnorti
■5 sfesr * hide (far armour) *" mins
C> L-jlL 9 vjiv
O uterm \ im & * iilMclaffil
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ik ships (franufaetwed To Chinese spedFicalicms)
▲ China during the Ming period was open
to foreign trade, doing business with its
neighbours in every direction. Its exports
were predominantly manufactured goods,
including silk cloth, ceramics, paper and
bronze coins, but they also included some
raw materials (such as silk). This pattern
changed in the 1 8th century when China
responded to international demand and
began to supply large quantities of silk, tea
and porcelain to the West. Having only small
deposits of precious metals, it relied largely
on imported silver and gold to support its
increasingly sophisticated market economy.
In 1368 the Mongols, who had ruled China since 1271,
were ousted by a peasants' revolt, the leader of which
crowned himself Emperor Taizu and founded the Ming
dynasty. The Ming period (1368-1644) marked a renais-
sance in China's cultural, political and economic strength.
Administrative systems for running the empire dating from
221 BC were resumed, the imperial examinations for appli-
cants to the civil service were reinstated, and there was a
national census and land registration for the purposes of
taxation. The Spiritual School (xinxue), based on the
tradition of the Ideologist School of Confucianism (lixue)
was established, supporting the need for social order
according to the "Will of Heaven". It was to remain popular
throughout the Ming and subsequent Qjng period.
Developments in agriculture
An agricultural system based on small freeholds was
rebuilt, and initially attempts were made by Emperor Taizu
to control the tax burden on the poorer farmers. During
the second half of the Ming period, however, ownership of
land became increasingly concentrated in the hands of a
few. This led to the introduction of dual ownership, under
which a freeholder could offer land for permanent lease.
Sharecropping - a system by which a proportion of the
crops produced by the leaseholder is handed over in rent -
was also common.
There were significant technological improvements in
Chinese agriculture. From the second half of the 16th
century new crops were adopted from the outside world,
including the potato and sweet potato, maize, sugar beet,
tomato, kidney bean, mango, papaya, agave, pineapple,
chilli and tobacco; several improved species, such as the
American peanut and cotton, were also introduced. This
resulted in an agricultural revolution, with an increase in
the use of marginal land and, as a consequence, in agricul-
tural production. China's landscape and the Chinese diet
were both dramatically altered. The publication of the
Complete Treatise on Agricultural Administration in
around 1625 also had a major impact. Its author, Xu
Guangqi, was the de facto Prime Minister, and he enthusi-
astically promoted the new crops and Western technology
for water control. As a result, the Chinese economy was
able to survive the increasingly frequent natural disasters
of the second half of the Ming period.
Trade and expansion of influence
Ming China was active in domestic and foreign trade.
Trading guilds were well established in commercial centres
and long-distance trade in staple products flourished
{map 1). China was essentially open to foreign trade, as is
evident from the outflow of ceramics and silk, and the
inflow of silver that enabled China to adopt its first silver
standard. A large number of Chinese settled in Southeast
Asia, along the maritime trading routes. In addition,
European Christian missionaries in China introduced
Western technology. Some, such as Matteo Ricci in the
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
16th century, were appointed to high positions in the
Imperial Court.
Chinese influence was extended by the state-sponsored
voyages of the early 15th century, led by Admiral Zheng
He. The admiral and his fleet crossed the South China Sea,
the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea, visiting among other
places Sumatra, Calicut, Zufar and Mogadishu (map 2).
The armada - consisting of 27,800 mariners on 200 ships -
was well equipped with charts and compasses, and its cap-
tains were knowledgeable about meteorological and
hydrological conditions. Its voyages, which represent the
most spectacular episode in Chinese maritime history,
helped to consolidate China's sphere of influence in Asia.
Western powers presented little threat during the Ming
period. In 1622-24 the imperial navy twice defeated invad-
ing Dutch fleets: off China's south coast, at Macau and
Amoy, and off the Pescadore Islands near Taiwan. Only
Japanese pirates generally caused concern on the coasts.
The real danger to the empire came from the Tatar and
Manchu invasions on the northern and northwestern fron-
tiers, and in 1449 Emperor Zhu Qizhen was captured while
fighting the invaders. Between 1368 and 1620, 18 major
construction projects were carried out to overhaul the
6,700 kilometres (4,200 miles) of the Great Wall (map 3).
The decline of the Ming dynasty
The military strength of the empire gradually faded, and
internal rebellions broke out every year from 1522. There
was a decline in the efficiency of the Ming government,
partly due to interference in the process of government by
court eunuchs, but also because rampant tax evasion threw
the government into financial difficulties. In response,
around 1573 a "one-whip method" of taxation was intro-
duced, intended to lower administrative costs by reducing
the number of different taxes levied, and to spread the tax
burden more fairly. This reform was short-lived, however,
and financial and socio-economic crises were to haunt the
Ming dynasty until its downfall.
The Ming dynasty ended in 1644 with the suicide of
Emperor Zhu Yiujian following the fall of Beijing to rebels.
Officials of the Ming government enlisted the aid of the
Manchus - a hitherto nomadic people from beyond the
Great Wall who had adopted the Chinese culture - to help
them drive the rebels from Beijing. However, once in
control of the capital the Manchus refused to leave, and the
rule of the Manchu Qing dynasty (1644-1911) began. (A
Ming exile government survived in Taiwan until 1683 in the
form of a city state with a large fleet and an extensive
trading network in East and Southeast Asia.)
3 Ming AttP Manchu Qing
MPiftlAL BORDERS
■ Ana wier Mngd^KEty
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dynasty m 1 760
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Early Manchu Qing rule
The legitimacy of the Manchu Qing dynasty was always in
question, and perhaps as a consequence it made few inno-
vations; its language, state machinery, legal framework and
economic policies were all inherited from the Ming. The
early Qing can, however, be credited with maintaining a
long internal peace and with expanding the Chinese empire
to its greatest extent ever, by joining the Manchu territory
in Manchuria and Siberia to China, consolidating military
control over the part of Turkestan known as the "New
Territory", and developing a political link with Tibet
(map 3). As a result, the population of the Chinese Empire
reportedly tripled from around 143 million in 1740 to over
423 million in 1846. From 1800 onwards, however, the
Qing dynasty was increasingly under threat from internal
uprisings - caused by famine and a corrupt government -
and from aggressive Western powers.
▲ Under the Manchu dynasty the Chinese
Empire, already extensive, trebled in size.
However, with the exception of Manchuria,
the territory gained was neither highly
populated nor particularly fertile. Although
the vassal states of Korea and Annam
provided the empire with only a small
income, they did form buffer zones against
potential invaders.
< Zheng He's fleets, which numbered 200
ships, sailed on a series of voyages across
the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia and the
east coast of Africa, and throughout the
islands of Southeast Asia. The ships returned
laden with goods and exotic plants, as well
as prisoners of war (including the King of
Ceylon). Zheng's fleers used force on three
occasions: in Sumatra in 1404, in Ceylon
(Sri Lanka) in 1 41 0, and in Sumatra in
1413, mainly against Chinese pirates.
© THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-1405 pages 98-99 © LATE MANCHU QING CHINA 1800-1911 pages 198-99
TOKUGAWA JAPAN
1603-1867
TSUSHIMA
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I Major domains and regions in the late Tokugawa period
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▲ Throughout the Tokugowa period Japan
remained divided into a largely stable
number of domains, with the Tokugowa and
related families (sninpan) together
controlling aver 25 per cent of the land.
However, people generally identified
themselves with a particular region rather
than a domain, and economic and social
developments occurred on o regional basis.
▲ Tokugowa leyasu was responsible for
the establishment of the Tokugowa
Shogunate in 1 603. Theshogunate
achieved peace throughout the islands of
Japan far two and a half centuries - but
only through the imposition of strict controls
on all classes of society and a policy of
isolation from the rest of the world.
In 1603, after many decades of civil war, Japan came
under a new structure of military government headed by
the Tokugawa family. The emperor, resident in Kyoto, no
longer had any real political power, although the Tokugawa
administration, called the Shogunate or Bakufu, ruled in his
name. It discharged some of the functions of a national gov-
ernment but a degree of decentralization persisted, with the
country divided into domains, each ruled by a semi-
autonomous daimyo (lord). Former enemies of the regime
became tozama (outside) lords, while those deemed
friendly were denoted fudai and were given important
government posts. Fudai domains, along with those of
collateral branches of the Tokugawa family (shinpan), were
concentrated in the centre of the country (map 1). The
shogunate had no power to tax within any of the domains,
or, in general, to intervene in the political control of these
private fiefdoms. Its only income came from lands directly
owned by the Tokugawa and related (collateral) families,
including, for example, the Ii and Matsudaira.
In an attempt to ensure their continued dominance, the
Tokugawa implemented controls over individual lords and
the population in general. Contacts with countries outside
Japan were restricted to a minimum, giving rise to a period
of national seclusion, or "isolation". AH daimyo had to visit
the shogunal capital, Edo, regularly, and leave their families
there as hostages. They were compelled to engage in public
works to restrict their finances, and public disorder within
domains could incur heavy penalties. A strict hereditary
caste system headed by the ruling samurai (warrior) caste,
followed in descending order by farmers, artisans and
merchants, was enforced. The economy was based on rice,
with the size and wealth of the various domains measured in
terms of the rice crop. The daimyo paid their warrior
retainers stipends measured in rice, and the warrior caste
as a whole marketed any surplus not required for
consumption to purchase other necessities and luxuries.
Urbanization and economic growth
Although the influence of the Tokugawa over the daimyo
progressively weakened, the ruling structure remained
broadly unchanged until the fall of the shogunate in 1867.
However, the very success of the regime in achieving
political and social stability stimulated changes which were
ultimately to contribute to its downfall. Removal of the
likelihood that output would be plundered or destroyed
encouraged both farmers and artisans to increase produc-
tion, while peace made the transport of raw materials and
finished products easier (map 2).
By the end of the Tokugawa period a growing proportion
of the population resided in towns of over 5,000 people, and
in some areas this proportion reached over 30 per cent
(map 3). The need for the ruling caste to transform their
rice income into cash stimulated the rise of powerful
merchant families, many based in the city of Osaka. These
merchant houses accumulated great wealth, despite their
low social status, and a growing proportion of the popula-
tion engaged in educational and cultural pursuits.
Agricultural output increased with the aid of improved
techniques and land reclamation, and the majority of
peasants ceased to be simple subsistence rice producers,
becoming involved, along with artisans, in the supply of
handicrafts and other goods. The population, after growing
in the first half of the Tokugawa period, stabilized. The latter
years saw the rise of manufacturing activities outside the
towns, the development of local specialities and the
emergence of what has been termed "proto-industriali-
zation". It is generally agreed that these economic develop-
ments were a significant factor in supporting Japan's
subsequent process of industrialization.
Social change and unrest
The scale of economic growth and change in the 17th and
18th centuries put pressure on the old system, with the
authorities becoming powerless to control the expanding
commercial interests and networks. Social status and wealth
no longer went hand in hand, and the daimyo and their
followers found themselves in debt to rich merchants who
were nominally at the bottom of the social hierarchy. The
distinctions between castes became blurred as individuals
ceased to confine themselves to their prescribed occupa-
tions; the samurai, in particular, now had little reason to
demonstrate their military role, instead becoming bureau-
crats, scholars and, increasingly, anything that would make
ends meet. New economic structures, such as landlordism,
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
Incidence or peasant uprisings in the Tmiugawa period
▼ Peasant uprisings peaked in the 1 830s
- an em of famine - when unres! nol only
involved greater numbers than ever before
but oko spied to embrace whole regiaiK.
Hiding occurred both in lowns and in ibe
countryside, culminating in o mojot uprising
in Osaka in 1937.
Nochinoe
2 Major transport routes in
tni late tokugawa period
MM famcoltMc
Wopr buj Wll
OttwbndiHti
Ssoroutt
A Transport routes used by trie ruling
doss were increasingly supplemented, bam
on land and by sea, by routes lor the
transport of goods around Ibe country.
These routes were a to used by the common
people, and this was a contributory (odor in
the increasing mobility of the population in
the later yeocs ol the Tokugcw regime.
V The thogunale polky of bringng
members of the samurai warrior doss ir
the capital ol each domain, and the
concentration of doimyo families
and retainers in fdo and other towns,
stimulated a substantial increase in
urhaniialion, which in turn promoted
conspicuous consumption
threatened to undermine the traditional tribute relationship
between peasant and warrior Above all, the belief its of
growth were not evenly spread Not only did the ruling easte
lose out through their dependence on relatively fixed riee
prices at a time of inflation, but the lower strata of agricul-
tural workers and urban residents proved highly vulnerable
to crop failures, market manipulation and arbitrary
exactions by some of their rulers. Local unrest, often
violent, beeame an increasingly frequent occurrence,
particularly from the late 18th century {Ixir chart),
The ultimate failure of the ruling easte in many areas -
particularly those controlled by the shogunate and its
closest followers - to cope adequately with the effects of all
these pressures fundamentally weakened the system,
rendering it vulnerable eo political and military opposition
from within, and Western threats from without. When, after
1853, Western countries managed to breach Japan's
seclusionist policy, their presence further weakened the
integrity of an already shaky system, and contributed to
growing internal conflicts. In 1S67 these resulted in the
downfall of the Tokugawa and the establishment by irs
enemies of a new regime, nominally headed by the emperor,
the following year.
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O EAST ASIA 907-1600 pages 86-87 O THE MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN 1867-1937 pages 200-1
THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVID EMPIRES
1500-1683
▼ The Ottoman Empire, already
substantial in 1 500, continued to expand in
lit-: 1 6lh and 1 7 ih centuries, though net
without setbacks, such as its defeat in the
naval Battle of feponlo in 1 571 . Its dedme
can be dated from 5 683 when Ottoman
troops were forced la retreat after failing in
their attempt in take Vienna.
T The area east of tbe Euphrates was the
subject of much dispute between the
Ottomans and Safaitds in the I olh and
early 1 7lh centuries, until o boundary
between the two empires was finally agreed
with the Peace of Zuhab in 1639.
The Ottoman and Safavid status represented twin
peaks of islamic political and cultural achievement,
and eaoh handed down a powerful and complex
legacy to the modern Islamic world. Krom [he mid- 15th
ecnttrry to 168.1 the Ottoman Empire was also one of the
most successful and militarily effective states of all time.
Its sultan, whom Western contemporaries called "The
Grand Signior". was regarded with immense respect
throughout Christendom. Ottoman power was based on
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2 The making of the Ottoman- Saiavid
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I Ottoman Empire before 1514
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gunnery, the maintenance of a navy and an effective
system of military recruitment and training. Originally, the
Ottoman Janissary regiments were maintained by the
devskirme - the "gathering" of child slave reeruits from
the margins of the empire, who eventually were ahle to
leave military service as free Muslims. However, by the
17th century local, Muslim-born recruits were beginning to
dominate the army.
The < )ttotnan state displayed a high level of religious
tolerance for the substantial proportion of the empires
subjects who were not Ottoman Turks or even Muslims.
Members of minority communities became senior ( Htoman
commanders and administrators; indeed, the Orthodox
Greek community was probably richer and more numer-
ous than that of the ruling Ottoman Turks.
The Ottoman economy was based on an agricultural
society winch supported a system of military and religious
fiefdoms. A vital adjunct to this peasant world was provided
by the empire's most notable and outward-looking commu-
nities - the Greeks. Armenians, Syrians and Scphardi .lews
who dominated many of the empire's cities and towns
Territorial expansion was intrinsic to Ottoman power
[map I ). As late as the I 7th century there was no sign that
policy-makers in Constantinople believed that Ottoman
territorial authority had reached saturation point or
achieved natural frontiers. Vet this was, in effect, the case.
The Ottoman threat to Italy faded and Vienna - the "Red
Apple of the West" in < )ttoman military folklore - remained
a prize that eluded the sultans. The defeat of the last great
Ottoman expedition to Vienna in 16S3 marked the begin-
ning of the empire's long decline.
The Safavid state
The Safavids made their mark by nurturing the culture that
defines modern Iran, The founder of the Safavid dynasty
was Shah [small I (r. 1501-24), who re-established a
centra! government amid the political chaos into which
Persia had fallen in the aftermath of the age of Timiir-leng.
Ismail's partisans were the Qie.il bash - red-capped
Turcoman devotees of the Safawi religious brotherhood.
The shah welded the (Jizilhash into a political force by
ATIAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
linking his and their ambitions to the establishment of
"Twelver Shiism" as the religion of the Persian state. In the
wider Islamic world, this nostalgic Shiite tradition was
increasingly a marginal or sectarian faith, regarded by the
Sun n i majority as heretical. In Sat'avid Persia, Shiism
became the defining national creed, providing the Safavids
with an ideological focus. Unfortunately, it also exacerbated
enmities between Persia and its Sunni Muslim neighbours
and rivals, the Ottomans to the west and the Uzbek raiders
from Transoxania (map 2).
Safavid shahs - most notably Abbas I (r, 1587-1629) -
were deliberate propagandists of Shiite culture. They were
patrons of representational art, usually in miniature, and
undertook a magnificent building programme of religious
architecture, palaces and public works. The greatest splen-
dours survive in Abbas I's capital, Esfahan.
The forging of a frontier
The Ottoman Turks inherited from their Byzantine prede-
cessors a determination to keep the Black Sea dependent
on Constantinople, free from control by f Centra I Asian
rulers. When Shah Ismail and his Qizilhash forces began
to infiltrate eastern Anatolia from Tabriz in the early 16th
century, they provoked a massive Ottoman military
response. The armies of Sultan Selim the Grim were in the
forefront of contemporary military capacity, and the
Ottoman artillery gained a dramatic victory over the
lightly-armed Persians at Chakliran in 1514.
The Battle of Chaldiran appears to have shifted the
centre of gravity of the Persian Empire to the east, but it
was not a final encounter. It led to more than 120 years of
intermittent Ottoman-Safavid conflict over laud occupied
by Azeris, Kurds and Mesopotaniian Arabs {map 2). (By
diverting Ottoman attention from the Balkans, this conflict
relieved western Europe of some of the military pressure
to which it had been exposed since the Ottoman elimi-
nation of the Byzantine Empire in 1453.) The standard
pattern in this long conflict was one of an Ottoman offen-
sive countered by Persian "scorched earth" and guerrilla
tactics. Shah Abbas I was briefly able to set the Safavid
forces on the offensive and reconstitute most of the empire
■
3 Trade routes in the 16th and 1 7th centuries
Wopr land rnule ---- Sea retire
Olhrjr lanJ raute
30
MuatJj'
once ruled by his predecessor Ismail, but the eventual
settlement, enshrined in the lasting Peace of Zuhab in
1639, favoured the Ottomans. The frontier had no logic in
terms of language, ethnicity or culture. It divided rather
than defined communities, splitting Sunni from Sunni and
Shiite from Shiite, but it formed the basis for the frontier
between the Ottoman and Persian empires and survived as
the Iraq-Iran border. The Safavid Empire continued until
the invasion of its lands by the Ghilzai Afghans in 1722
heralded the demise of the dynasty in 1736.
The world of merchants and caravans
The Ottoman and Safavid states governed lands that had
been in contact with a wider world since antiquity. The
empires were crossed by commercial and pilgrimage routes
and contained gateways by land and sea which linked the
Mediterranean and Levantine worlds to the Indian sub-
continent, Southeast Asia and China (map .1).
Many Ottoman and Safavid traders were also Muslim
pilgrims undertaking journeys to Mecca. However, a good
proportion of the traders and migrants from the Islamic
empires were not Muslims hut members of Christian and
.lewish minority groups operating in partnership with
Europeans, many of whom were based in Constantinople,
Smyrna, Aleppo and Alexandria - the empire's "windows
to the West". Safavid contacts with the Western world were
tenuous and bedevilled by the difficulties of the Persian
terrain, hut during the 16th century European adventur-
ers did make their way to Esfahan and back. At the same
time, the powers of western Europe began to establish their
own sea routes to the East (pages 1 18-19), thus threaten-
ing to wrest control of Eurasian trade from the Muslims.
However, although in 1515 the Portuguese captured
Ormuz. a Gull market for horses and spices, they lost it
again to the .Safavids in 1622. Thereafter, the old trade in
spices mill silk - and a new trade in tea - continued to be
serviced by caravan routes into the 18th eenturv.
A The territory ruled by the Ottomans and
Safavids wns criss-crossed by land and sea
routes used hy merchants and pilgrims
alike. Sea travel was risky but could be
relatively straightforward on Mediterranean
short baps or in regions governed by the
alternating monsoon winds. Overland traffic
was arduous and slaw but continued lo play
an important rale in trade with Asia until
well mlo the )8lh century.
A The dome ol ihe Modrasn
Shah mosque is among the mo
of Safavid architecture built ia
century in Esfahon the capital
yi Madcu-i
iny splendours
the t?lh
ofAhhosI
© THE BYZANTINE AND OTTOMAN EMPIRES 1025-1500 pages 96-97 © THE DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 1683-1923 pages 178-79
INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS
1526-1765
1 MUGHAKOHQUESIS 1506-1605
. 1516—29
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B A^oMieiieiieiiolewIMS
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▲ On the death of Babur in 1 530 the
Mughal Empire was little mare than an area
in northern India under military occupation.
During the reign of Akbor, between 1556
and 1 605, it was much expanded and
became a centrally governed state.
T The artisan industries of India -
especially those manufacturing cotton
textiles - were at first stimulated by the
arrival of the Europeans in the 1 6th century.
As a result, India became the workshop of
the world known to Europeans.
>4^!fe£
38
The Mughal Empire was founded In 1526 by Babur,
Sultan of Kabul. Babur was of Turkic origin and traced
his ancestry back to Timur-leng (Tamerlane) and to
Ghinggis Khan, the Mongol Emperor of China. His advance
from Kabul was at the expense of Afghan warlords who
themselves had spread into the plains of India,
conquering the Sultanate of Delhi and establishing the Lodi
dynasty. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the Battle of
Panipat in 1526 and then, until his death in 1530, progres-
sively extended his sway across the Ganges Valley as far
east as the borders of Bengal (map 1).
Consolidation under Akbar
Babur's successor, Humayan (r. 1530-56), faced a resurgence
of Afghan power and, between 1540 and 1555, was driven
into exile while the empire was ruled by Sher Shah and his
sons. In 1555 Humayan retook Delhi to restore the Timurid
monarchy, and when he died the following year the succes-
sion passed to his son Akbar (r. 1556-1605). Having driven
the Mughals' enemies from Delhi, Akbar used his long reign
both to expand the empire and, even more significantly,
to consolidate and transform it, converting a rulership
founded on warrior nomadism into one based on central-
ized government.
The state which Akbar constructed had a number of key
features. At the top he built a "service" nobility of mans-
abdars who provided administration across the empire.
Many mansabdars were immigrants from elsewhere in the
Islamic world, whose loyalty was owed exclusively to the
emperor himself. Beneath them, Akbar incorporated the
Hindu Rajput chieftains who ruled over lower castes and
commoners. These chieftains possessed local power bases
which were notionally independent of Mughal authority, but
their status and security were enhanced by membership of
an imperial aristocracy. To facilitate their incorporation,
Akbar - who was fascinated by all religions - also promoted
a cultural style which crossed strict religious boundaries.
Beneath the mansa6dari-Rajput elite, the empire rested on
the labour of millions of peasants and artisans from whom
large revenues were extracted.
2 Trade and manufacturing
PFiitsipcH Tradnrj routes
A
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(enrras of flrodurtipn
•
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O diamonds
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▲ Following the death of Aurangzeb in
1 707 many regional states competed for
power, and the roles which the Europeans
were acquiring in trading and banking
became increasingly significant. Frequently
the regional states depended on European
commercial agencies - such as the British
East India Company - which, as a result,
moved more directly into the political
foreground during the 18th century.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
AFGHANISTAN
3 Expansion and ehcrqachmintc 1605-1707
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Industry and tiiaije
Akbai'B successors Jahangir
(r. 1605-27) and Shah Jahan
(r. 1627- 58) continued these
imperial structures - which
made Mugl i;i! rulership one of
the wonders of the time Mughal
splendour and power were com-
parable only to those of the
Ottoman and Chinese empires
(pages 136-39 and 142-43). They
were based on the mobilization of
great wealth through a system of eash-
taxation, which itself was made possible
Ivy the high productivity and commercial
development of the economy, India's fertile
river valleys yielded substantial agricultural
surpluses, which in turn supported extensive
artisan industries {map 2). 1'rom at least the
111th century these industries had been drawn
into trading networks stretching from Arabia to Indonesia.
At the end of the 15th century Asian trade had also
begun to attract European interest (pa&ess J 18-19). Kirst the
Portuguese, then the Dutch, Krcncb and English, reached
India by sea and developed trading links (map .J). They
brought with them huge quantities of gold and silver taken
from the Americas, further stimulating the Indian economy.
1 lowover, the European presence also spelled danger -
although its character did not become fully apparent until
[he 18th century. At that point, and most notably after the
death of the Emperor Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707), Mughal
power went into precipitate decline (map 4). The empire
was unable to respond to invasions from abroad or to
rebellions at home Even the mansabdari elite turned
against it, as governors (or ncwabs) declared themselves
independent and sought to establish their own kingdoms.
Although the emperorship retained a symbolic significance
throughout the rest of the century (and was not formally
abolished until 1857), the real substance of Mughal power
was weakening even by 17,10.
N;i.-j m :.,:''
The km pike's collapse
Many different explanations
have been put forward for the
sudden collapse of so mighty and
established an empire. Nearly all of these
have rooted the problem in Aurangzeb's
reign ile sought to expand Mughal power
southwards, taking virtually the whole of the
subcontinent under imperial rule. However, in
doing so he became involved in protracted con-
flict against opponents whom he could
neither defeat nor incorporate.
AurangzelVs long w r ars in the south proved
extremely costly. They stretched the
finances of the empire and promoted
changes in its internal structures, He
increased the weight of taxation,
which fomented revolt in other
provinces. Frustrated by the Hindu
Marathas, he became increasingly
intolerant in his religious practices -
threatening the Hindu-Muslim accord
which had marked Akhar's empire. To cope
with the rising pressures, Aurangzeb also expanded the
mansuhduri elite in ways which reduced the representa-
tion of Muslim immigrants and thus increased that of local
Indian powers. The empire which he bequeathed to his
successors in 1707 was already deeply strained.
Yet there may have been other causes of Mughal
decline, which point to the growing influence of a wider
world. Rapid commercial expansion in the 17th century,
when an ever-growing number of trading posts was estab-
lished, both altered the political geography of India and
changed the social balance between military and economic
power. Commerce was based on overseas trade and most
enriched the maritime provinces. It also strengthened the
position of mercantile groups and the gentry classes. The
Mughal Empire, founded by warrior descendants of the
"Mongol Horde" and centred on cities in India's heartland,
was singularly ill-equipped to manage such developments.
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■4 Aurangzeb attempted to establish Mughal
power in southern India. However, in doing so
he came up against roes - in particular, the
MaroThos - whom he [odd da little to contain.
The Maiathas inlrodiMied new forms of
wnifore, based on ouenillo lollies, which
defied Mughal amid might. Ah. c. as thief-
loins risen from The peasantry - rather than
imposed on lap of it - Murntho leaders
spurned the kinds ol inducements which hod
made the Rajputs susceptible la imperial
influence. From the 1680s Maralha armies
broke through the Mughal cordon meant to
contain them, and ravaged lar and wide. The
Europeans, who had established trading posts
around the roast, were mere observers ol
events at this time.
A The Mughak are renowned for their
architectural achievements, the most
famous ol whkh is the Io| Itahol. built
between 1(32 and I MS by Shah Jahan.
Painting oho flourished, particularly during
Ihe reign al Jahangir, shown here looking al
a portrait of At bar his lather.
© THE MUSLIM WORLD 1000-1400 pages 88-89 © THE BRITISH IN INDIA 1608-1920 pages 194-95
EUROPEAN STATES
1500-1600
▼ Frontiers in Europe changed consider-
ably between 1500 and 1560. In 1500
the border between France and the Holy
Roman Empire, (or example, was that
defined by the Treaty of Verdun in 843,
with the addition to France of Dauphine
in 1 349 and Provence in 1 481 . The treaties
of Madrid (1526) and Cambrai (1529)
fundamentally modified the border in the
north by transferring Flanders and Artois
from France to the Empire.
Maps of 16th-century Europe are often deceptive
in that they appear to suggest that the western coun-
tries - France, Spain and England - and the eastern
countries - Poland and Russia — were consolidated and
centralized, while sandwiched between them many tiny
entities were grouped together to form the Holy Roman
Empire (map 1). In fact, all the European states were highly
decentralized and regionalized in 1500. France (map 2)
actually saw an increase in devolution during the 16th
century as many provinces escaped central control in the
French Wars of Religion (1562-98).
Spain consisted largely of a union of the kingdoms of
Castile and Aragon, with Castile itself made up of a number
of component kingdoms. In 1512 Ferdinand of Aragon
added to this by annexing the kingdom of Navarre, though
not the portion of it north of the Pyrenees. Stability in
Spain rested on the willingness of the government (centred
at Madrid from the 1560s) not to touch the immunities and
privileges of these kingdoms, another of which was added
to the Spanish Habsburg realm in 1580 when King Philip II
of Spain also became King of Portugal.
Poland was divided up into counties and governorships
dominated by the nobility, and was formally made up of
two realms, the kingdom of Poland and the vast Grand
Duchy of Lithuania. Agreements reached between 1569
and 1572 turned the kingdom into an elective monarchy
in which the power of the king was limited by a diet made
up of senators and delegates.
The Russian Empire came into being as a multi-ethnic
empire only after the coronation of Ivan IV in 1547. It was
created through the conquest of the Tatar khanates of
Kazan and Astrakhan in the 1550s and expansion across
the Urals into Siberia from the 1580s (pages 148-49).
Though often ruled brutally, it hardly consisted of a cen-
tralized realm and, indeed, for a decade of Ivan's reign
(1564-74) it was deliberately divided by the tsar into a
personal domain, in which his word was law, and the rest
of the country, in which the boyars (nobles) ruled.
The Holy Roman Empire
By the 16th century the jurisdiction of the Holy Roman
Empire was, in reality, confined to the territory north of
the Alps. The Italian section continued formally as part of
the Empire, with its rulers nominally invested as Imperial
Vassals, but as time went on this had less and less meaning.
The Swiss Confederation gained exemption from imperial
duties in 1499 and was formally released from imperial
jurisdiction in 1648.
In 1500 and 1512 the rest of the Empire was organized
in Imperial Circles for purposes of raising taxes and
administering justice. The Netherlands was formed as the
Burgundian Circle, the northern provinces of which were
formally recognized as independent of the Empire in 1648.
As a result of the Lutheran Reformation (pages 154-55),
many of the ecclesiastical territories were secularized after
1520. The basic constitution of the Empire (the Golden
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
3 Itmt 1500-59
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-4 France was composed of provinces,
some of which were under centralized
control {pays d'elecliom) while others
raised local taxes through regional
assemblies (pap d'etals). Law differed
widely between regions, the main distinction
being between the Roman-based law of the
south and the customary law of the north.
Bull of 1356, which defined the princes who had the right
to elect the Emperor), was modified by the Treaty of
Augsburg of 1555 to accommodate these changes, granting
princes and cities the right to be Lutheran and recogniz-
ing the secularization of church property up to 1552.
European dynasties
Most European states were to some extent dynastic - they
were regarded as a family inheritance. The collection of
lands under the rule of the King of Spain in the second half
of the century (Portugal, Castile, Navarre, Catalonia, Naples
and Sicily) was the product of dynastic inheritance under
the Habsburg Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor from 1519
to 1558 (pages 152-53). In the British Isles, King Henry VIII
of England claimed the throne of Ireland in 1541, and in
1603 King James VI of Scotland inherited the English
throne, thus uniting all three kingdoms under one monarch.
In central Europe at the beginning of the 16th century,
one branch of the Jagiellon dynasty of Poland ruled over
Poland-Lithuania while another ruled over Bohemia and
Hungary. Hungary, one of the largest kingdoms of the late
Middle Ages, was a union of Hungary itself (with power
devolved to powerful regional magnates), Croatia and parts
of Bosnia. After King Lajos II of Hungary was overwhelmed
by the Ottomans at the Battle of Mohacs in 1526 (pages
142-43), much of his inheritance passed to the Habsburgs
through his sister's marriage to Ferdinand I, the brother
of Emperor Charles V.
From the 1540s the borderland between this eastern
Habsburg territory and the Ottoman Empire was marked by
a number of territories: Hungarian Transylvania (Erdely),
Moldavia and Wallachia were ruled by local princes as trib-
utaries of the sultan, whose direct rule extended to Buda
and the central region of Hungary. In the north the Union of
Kalmar of 1397, which had brought together Denmark,
Norway and Sweden-Finland under the same monarch, was
broken in 1523 with the secession of Sweden-Finland under
Gustav I Vasa (pages 150-51).
Dynastic wars
The ruling dynasties of Europe were all closely related to each
other, though this did not prevent the fighting of wars. Often
described as "Wars of Magnificence", these were pursued for
glory and the vindication of dynastic title, and were
considered more admirable than "common wars" fought for
the annexation of territory or other forms of gain. An example
of this occurred in Italy (map 3) where the House of France
and the Spanish House of Aragon - whose rights were
inherited by the Habsburg Charles V - both laid claim to
Naples in the south and to Lombardy and the duchy of Milan
in the north. In the latter, the richest part of Italy, the struggle
was more than one of inheritance. Francis I of France gained
control of Milan in 1500, lost it in 1512 and reconquered it
in 1515, but Charles V had to oppose this if his power in Italy
were not to crumble. War began in 1521 (the French
evacuated Milan in 1522), and lasted intermittently in the
peninsula until the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559.
Signed by representatives of Henry II of France and Philip II
of Spain, this treaty had the effect of liquidating French
ambitions in Italy while maintaining French acquisitions in
Lorraine - Metz, Toul and Verdun (map 2). This established
a new international order which was to survive with modifi-
cations until the Treaty of Westphalia in 1 648.
Tyrrhenian
Sett
'
•4 In the period of intermittent war between
France and the Habsburgs from 1 521 to
1 559, France occupied the territory of
Savoy-Piedmont (1 536-59) as o gateway
across the Alps into Italy. Despite the disaster
of the sack of Rome in 1 527 by troops of
Charles V, papal authority over Romagna was
strengthened, with the Venetians agreeing to
evacuate Ravenna in 1 530. Parma was
acquired from Milan by Pope Julius II in
1512 and granted out as a duchy by Pope
Paul III to his son Pierluigi Farnese in 1 545.
© EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 O REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE 1600-1785 pages 156-57
THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA
1462-1795
*■ G-and Duke linn III exlended his
territory by annexing the neighbouring
principalities of Novgorod In M78 Tver in
HflSantlViolkijHi t*89. in 14M he
pushed weslwirds into rolond-liihunmo.
occupying tfiazma and the lowns of the
upper Oka basin. Ivan's son, Vasili III,
continued with ihcs policy of aggressive
expansion. Inking Smokmsk, Chernigov
Pskov and Juaian.
▼ As pari of ihe process ol expansion,
tsfrass | fortified trading posts] wete
established ot strategic points. In nsi/on
was founded ot Tomsk in 1 604 and by lid?
Turuchansk on the Yenisei River hod been
reached. Hie river became the frontier af
the empire in 1 619, with another string
ol mings being nlablrshed oktng il.
2 The growth of
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The expansion of Russian rule Lata Europe and Asia
was a process of exploration and discovery com par-
able with the eon tempo raucous exploration of the
oceanic world by western European peoples. It was,
however, also tile creation of a highly autocratic land
empire. In the mid- 15th century the Russian state uf
Muscovy was just one of many small principalities in north-
em Europe which paid tribute to the Tatars: by the end of
the 18th century it was at the heart of an empire that
stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Bering Ktrait,
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The process of expansion began after Muscovy had freed
itself from Tatar domination in the 145(.ls. Grand Duke
Ivan 111 (r. 1462-1505) and later his son, Vasili III
(r. 1505-33) set about extending his territory by annexing
neighbouring regions [map I). Ivan IV became the next
grand duke in 153.1 at the age of three, and during his
minority the biiyard (nobles) vied with each other for
control of the state. No further territorial expansion took
place until after he was formally crowned as the first "tsar"
(emperor) in 1547. However, in 1552 a successful campaign
was launched against the Tatar stronghold of Kazan, and this
was followed by the seizure of Astrakhan on the Caspian Sea
in 1 556. Russian territory now extended the entire length
of the Volga, bisecting Tatar domains and dominating the
peoples of the northern Caucasus and eastern Caspian.
Expansion into Asia
In the east the foundation in 1560 of a fortified post at Perm
on the River Kama brought the Muscovites to within easy
reach of the l.'rals, where trading in furs promised to be a
great source of wealth, from 1578 the Stroganovs, a family of
merchants who had been granted a vast tract of unexplored
land by the tsar, took the lead in exploration and settlement
beyond the Urals. Their allies in this process were the
Cossacks, descendants of peasants who had fled from
worsening economic conditions in Russia to become
fighting guards of the frontier. The Khanate of Kihir was
conquered in 1581, and the colonists founded nstrogs -
fortified trading posts - along the Irtysh and Ob rivers,
controlling the lower reaches of both by 1 5')2 {map 2).
Expansion continued to be rapid in the 17th century.
The Lena River was reached in 1632, the litdigirka in 1639
and the Kolyma in 1644. The explorer llhezhncv reached
the Bering Strait in 1648 and KhabarOV got to the Amur
River in 1 649. The Khamehatka Peninsula was entered by
Russian explorers in 167", These territorial advances took
place largely at the expense of the indigenous, often
nomadic, peoples who were powerless in the face of
Russian imperialism. Any resistance was effectively sup-
pressed by punitive expeditions from the ostrojtjs.
Russian ambitions ik i hi west
In the west, Russian ambitions svere more circumscribed. In
1558, in an attempt to take land around the Baltic, Ivan IV
became embroiled in a devastating war of 25 years which
mined both Livonia and Estonia and left the Russian armies
prostrate. Hy the end of his reign all Ivan's western conquests
■
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
had been lost. His death in 1584 unleashed a generation of
instability culminating in the "Time of Troubles", a period of
political and social upheaval and foreign occupation that was
not settled until a national revolt led to the installation of a
new dynasty, the Romanovs, in 1613.
At this time Russia's main western enemy was Poland,
which took advantage of Russia's internal problems to take
back Smolensk and Chernigov in 1618. Another threat was
the growing power of Sweden (pages 150-51), which
acquired Ingria and Garelia from Russia in 1617. Russia,
however, was able to take advantage of the Swedish
invasion of Poland in the 1650s to conclude a treaty with
the Ukrainian Cossacks and detach them from Poland.
Between 1667 and 1689 Russia also regained Smolensk and
Chernigov from Poland.
Peter the Great
By the beginning of Peter the Great's reign (1689-1725),
Russia had tripled its territory in a century. In Siberia, con-
solidation was now the order of the day, but in the west,
Russia faced the military power of Sweden under Charles
XII. As a consequence, the Great Northern War broke out
in 1700. Sweden was defeated by Russia in the Battle of
Poltava in 1709 (pages 150-51), and the outcome, formal-
ized in 1721, was the acquisition from Sweden of Estonia
and Livonia, and the return to Russia of Ingria and Carelia.
The coastal fortresses of Vyborg, Reval and Riga had fallen
into Russian hands, and Peter had been able to found the
new Baltic port of St Petersburg in 1703 (map 3).
Acquiring a port on the Baltic was one element of
Peter's ambitious plans to overhaul the state and
"Europeanize" Russia. So, too, was the construction of a
navy and the acquisition of a port on the Black Sea. He
achieved the latter when he captured Azov in 1696, but he
lost it again in 1711 during the Great Northern War. It was
not regained until the reign of Anna in 1739. Thereafter,
the conquest of the land surrounding the Sea of Azov
(Kuban, Crimea and Taurida) had to wait until the 1780s,
during the reign of Catherine II (1762-96).
Westernization and the economy
In order to compete with other western powers, Russia
needed to industrialize. A few ironworks had been set up by
foreigners in the 1630s in the Tula and Moscow regions, but
Russia remained an overwhelmingly peasant society and
lagged far behind western Europe. Peter the Great operated
an essentially mercantilist policy, patronizing certain
commercial interests in order to encourage export trade. As
a result there was rapid growth of both mining and the
armaments industry (map 3), but this "forced industrial-
ization", impressive as it seemed at the time, had little
impact on the living standards of the peasants.
▲ During the reign of Peter the Great the
number of industrial plants increased from
about 20 to around 200. Many of these
produced armaments, while others were
mining and metallurgical plants in the Urals.
However, conditions for the vast majority of
Russian people - oppressed by both
landlords and the state - continued to
deteriorate, leading to massive peasant
rebellions which periodically convulsed
Russia in the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries.
© THE MONGOL EMPIRE 1206-1405 pages 98-99 © RUSSIAN TERRITORIAL AND ECONOMIC EXPANSION 1795-1914 pages 180-81
SWEDEN, POLAND AND THE BALTIC
1500-1795
A Undtr King Guslov II Adsll
(i. 1611-32], Sweden betame a major
power in ihe Bollk region, As well as
modernizing the army, Gustav introduced
o number of tonstilulionol, legal and
educational reforms before being killed
in bottle during the Thirty Yean War.
3 Sweden in 172 1
| Smirch nyriloiv
A Tfw Great Horttwfn Wot of 1700-21 .
involving Sweden, Russia and Denmark ol
different times, finally exhausted Swedish
military strength. Treaties in 1719-20
handed firemen and Verden to Hanover and
Stettin to Prussia, and in 1 721 the Treaty ol
Hystadt conceded the loss ol livonio, Estonia
and Ingrra to Russia. The overseas hoses lor
Sweden's Baltic empire were thus cut away.
At tin; beg inning of the 1 dth century the Baltic region
was still dominated by power blocks which had been
In place for over a hundred years, In Scandinavia the
Union of Kalmar. dating from 1.197. joined together
Denmark, Norway and Sweden-Finland in a loosely
governed monarchy centred at Copenhagen. All round the
southern Bailie the allkmee of free llan.scatic cities, such as
Danzig and Liiheck, controlled trade. In the cast, the Order
of the Teutonic Knights still ruled over a region that
Included East Prussia, Estonia, Livonia and Gourland
(map 1 ). The largest country was Poland-Lithuania, created
in 1396 when the ruler of the east Grand Duchy of
Lithuania came to the Polish throne.
The Baltic, however, stood on the serge of great changes.
Economically, it was already in the process of becoming a
major supplier of rasv materials to the increasingly urban
capitalist society ol northwestern Europe. Poland svas
becoming a major supplier of grain, while furs and hemp
from Novgorod and Muscovy, arid timber and ores from
Sweden, were already major elements in European trade
and production. Consequently control of the ports, tolls and
waterways to western Europe svas an increasingly important
factor in the polities of the Baltic region.
A NEW IIHDKK IN THE BALTIC
In 1521 a Swedish nobleman. ( lustav Vasa, led a successful
revolution in Stockholm against the Danish king, thus ending
the Kalmar Union. Gttstav Vasa became king in 1523,
beginning a new period of Ssvedish independence and
nationhood. The civil wars which followed in Denmark and
Sweden re-established the power of the aristocracy and
limited that of the monarchy.
In the 1520s the Reformation (pages 154-551 hastened
the disintegration of the lands of the Teutonic Order, while
in Estonia. Livonia and Gourland the Order became
fragmented, leading eventually to civil war in 1556-57.
The Livonian lands now became a prime object of
competition between Poland. Musctwy (Russia)
Sweden and Denmark. During the resulting war.
the emergence of Sweden as a real power in
the Baltic region svas confirmed when the
Hanseatic port of Reval placed itself
under Swedish protection in 156(1
(map 1). Thereafter, the maintenance
of this foothold in Estonia became a
major determinant of Ssvedish policy- though Denmark, the
most powerful state in the region, opposed Swedish
pretensions. In 15N2 a treaty between Poland and Russia
left most of Livonia in Polish hands, and in 1595 Sweden
made good its hold on Estonia by signing the Treats" of
Teusiiio with Russia.
At the beginning of the 17th century Denmark was
still the leading Baltic power, with control of the Sound -
the only deep-water access to the Baltic. As a result of a svar
ssith .Sweden in 1611-1.1, it succeeded in expelling the
Swedes from their only port on the North Sea (Alvshorg)
and gaining trading access to Livonia, However, military
intervention in northern Germany in 1625-29 was a disas-
trous failure and a severe blow to Danish power.
THE BISF, AMI DECLINE OF SWEDEN
Erom 1603 Poland and Sweden fought for control of the
great Baltic trading centres such as Riga, Dorpat and Reval.
King Gustav II Adolf (r, 1611-32) uf Sweden succeeded in
capturing Riga in 1621 and the whole of Livonia by 1625,
and the following year he occupied most of the jiorts along
the Prussian coast. Tlte war was only ended by the Truce of
Alt mark in 162' J. allosving Ssseden to continue to milk the
revenues of the Prussian ports.
By 16.10 Ssseden svas a force to be reckoned svith in
European politics. Having modernised his armies. King
Gustav II Adolf went to war in Germany to counter the
threat to Sweden's security posed by the IJahshurgs (pciges
152—5.1). With his epie march through Germany in
1630-32, Ssseden temporarily became the military arbiter
of Europe and. despite setbacks in 16,14-36, emerged in
1648 as one of the victors of the Thirty Years War ImapJ).
Sweden's grossing ascendancy over Denmark was
recognized in 1045 by the Treaty of Briimscbro, svhich gave
1 SwtDISH tXPANSIOK IN THE
Mm AND 17th CENTURIES
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► In the 1 6th century Sweden was a
small country of just aver a million people
However, with the aid ol its natural
resources, it built a Baltic empire,
reaching the summit ol its power
between 1 671 and 1660.
Sweden Jamtland and Harjedalen as well as a 20-year lease
on Halland and freedom of passage through the Sound.
Denmark also conceded Bremen and Verden, confirmed in
the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) which also transferred
western Pomerania to Sweden. These treaties, however, did
not entirely settle the issue of predominance. Sweden still
needed to assure its control of the Prussian ports, and in
1655 King Charles X mounted an invasion of Poland that led
to its virtual collapse. He then moved against the Danes and
in 1658 forced them to abandon their provinces on the
Swedish mainland - Bohuslan, Halland, Skane and Blekinge
- as well as Trondheim in Norway (returned in 1660).
The year 1660 marks in some ways the summit of
Swedish imperial power based on a military system, both at
land and sea, that made Sweden the envy of Europe. There
were, however, a number of factors that threatened to weaken
Sweden. The population was only a little over a million, and
the constitution was liable to sudden fluctuations between
limited and absolute monarchy. The possessions in northern
Germany were extremely vulnerable and often lost during
wars, only to be retained by diplomatic manoeuvres.
The culmination of this was the Great Northern War of
1700-21 and the Battle of Poltava in 1709 between Charles
XII and Peter I of Russia (map 2). The Treaty of Nystadt in
1721 marked the end of Sweden's hegemony over the Baltic,
with the loss of Livonia and Estonia to Russia as well as part
of western Pomerania to Prussia (map 3).
The disintegration of Poland
To the south, Swedish military adventurism was a key
factor, along with Russian ambitions (pages 148-49), in the
disintegration of the Polish state (map 4). Poland never
recovered from the Swedish occupation of 1655-58, and in
1667 it lost the eastern Ukraine and Smolensk to Russia.
Thereafter, Poland became increasingly a plaything of
surrounding powers. It was a major theatre of the Great
Northern War of 1700-21, and by 1717 Peter the Great of
Russia had turned it into a Russian protectorate. When a
faction of the Polish nobility began to challenge this from
the 1760s, the protectorate ceased to serve a useful purpose
and Poland was divided up between Russia, Prussia and
Austria in a series of partitions from 1772 to 1795 (map 5).
▲ Swedish military power was based on
a national standing army established after
1 544 by Gustav I. This was supplemented
by mercenaries when a larger force was
needed for foreign conquest. In the early
17th century the army was further reformed
by Gustav II Adolf, paving the way for
Swedish success in the Thirty Years War
(1618-48) and beyond.
T After a brief period as a Russian protect-
orate, Poland was carved up in the course of
three partitions in 1 773, 1 793 and 1 795
between Russia, Austria and Prussia.
) SWEDEN j
uvotjia;
4 The Commokwuitk of Pound- Lithuania 1462-1 672
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< Poland— Lilhuonia fits! lost ground lo
Muscovy (Russia) between 1 503 ond 1 521 .
In I HI, however, Poland gained control of
ihe (ourland territory el the Lrvnnian Order
and in 1618 rejoined port of the Smolensk
region. Following Swedish wrnions in the
1 650s and renewed war with Russia, this
territory was last again in 1667
© EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 © REVOLUTION AND REACTION IN EUROPE 1815-49 pages 1 72-73
THE HABSBURG EMPIRE
1490-1700
▼ The Hobsburg Empsror Charles Y
presided over a vast collection of territories
and fined formidable enemies - Valois
France, the Ottoman Empire and raiiocn
alliances of Gentian princes In 1 5 Si, after
Charles's abdication, the empire was divided
in two, with Ferdinand I ruling the Austrian
domains and Philip II inheriting his father's
Spanish lands.
In 1490 the Habsburg dynasty was just one of a number
of ancient dynasties - among them the Valois of France,
the Trastamaras of Castile and Aragon and the .Tagicllons
of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary- that were in the process
of creating major princely states. Remarkably, by the 1520s
the HabsburgS had accumulated under Emperor Charles V
the largest conglomeration of territories and rights since the
age of Charlemagne in the 9th century (map 1 }. The mili-
tary and diplomatic system needed to rule and defend them
in the emperor's name was formidable by the standards of
the age. Vet in some ways it is a misnomer to calk about a
Habsburg "empire" at this time, for Charles ruled his many
territories largely through rights of inheritance and they all
maintained their separate constitutions.
The extent of Habsburg territories
Charles was the grandson of Maximilian I of the House of
Habsburg, which had ruled over domains centred on Austria
since the 13th century. Holy Roman Emperor from 1493 to
1519, Maximilian gained control, through marriage, of what
was left of the territories of the extremely wealthy Valois
dukes of Burgundy. In 1506 Charles inherited these territo-
ries from his father, Philip the I laudsome, and in the course of
his reign he made a number of additions (map 2). In 1516 he
inherited through his mother, .luana, daughter of Isabella of
Castile (d.!504| and Ferdinand of Aragon. Spanish territories
that Included Majorca, Sicily and Naples. Milan was added to
his territories in Italy through conquest in 1522. An alliance
was formed with the Genoese Kepublie in 1528; the defeat of
French expeditions to Milan and Naples (1528-29) and the
overthrow of the French-hacked Florentine Republic in 1 530
sealed Habsburg predominance in Italy. Thereafter, French
challenges - the occupation of Piedmont in 1536-59 and
invasions in 1544 and 1556-57 - proved transitory.
In 1519 Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor, a
role which brought formal prestige as the first prince of
Christendom hut little more. The King of France, in any
case, regarded himself as the equivalent of the emperor in
his own kingdom and recognized no superior, Charles ruled
more directly as Archduke of the Netherlands and of
Austria, Control of the eastern Habsburg lands centred on
Vienna was devolved to his brother Ferdinand, who was
elected heir to the imperial throne in 1531, Charles's hopes
of maintaining his prerogatives as emperor were under-
mined by the determination of several German princes to
defy him over the ban placed on Martin Luther, who had
provoked the first serious challenge to the Catholic Church
at the Imperial Diet at Worms in 1521 (pages 154-55).
In both the Mediterranean and central Europe Charles
directly confronted the power of the Ottoman Fimpire. The
Ottomans had occupied Rhodes in 1522 and went on to
defeat the Hungarian army in 1526. The Austrian territories
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
were therefore In the front line,
and Vienna withstood a major
siege in [52') ;md a threat of one
in 1532. The Ottoman threat was
only held at bay by the combined
dynastic and imperial power of the
Habsburgs. In the western Mediterra-
nean Charles sought, through the conquest
of Tunis in 1535 and the disastrous expedition
against Algiers in 1541, to huild on the foot-
holds already acquired in coastal North Africa.
Division of tiik kminre
Charles reached the height of his power at the llattle
of M till 1 berg in 1547, when he managed to crush the
forces of the Protestant rulers of Hesse and Saxony (jxiges
154-55), He then tried to reverse many of the religious and
political developments in Germany since the J 520s, hot his
position quickly l>egan to crumble, [n 1552 the rebellion of
the League of Princes in Germany allied to Henry 11 of
France forced hint to accept that the inheritance was too
large to be ruled by one man and that, as a family and
dynastic concern, it had to be shared. Consequently, on his
abdication in 15S6 the empire was divided between his son,
Philip 11, who inherited the Spanish possessions, and his
hrother. Ferdinand, who inherited the Austrian domains.
The empire in central Ei.rope
As Charles's deputy in German)', Ferdinand 1 had consoli-
dated the llabshurg family's position as central European
dynasts. When King Louts It of Hungary was killed at
Mohaes in 1526 [pafies 142^3), Ferdinand was elected to
the Bohemian and Hungarian thrones by the magnates, who
saw him as the best guarantor of their safety against the
Ottoman Turks. However, Ferdinand was opposed by one
Hungarian magnate - .Ian Zapolya of Transylvania, who was
backed by the Turks - and all that he could salvage of
Hungary were the territories of "Royal Hungary" (the west
of modern Hungary and modern Slovakia), By the late Kith
century these territories were elective monarchies, with
large and powerful Protestant nobilities, whose indepen-
dence Ferdinand H (King of liohcnii.'i from Id 17 and of
llongary from Id IS, and Holy Roman Kmperor 1619-37)
became determined to crush, while at the same time revers-
ing the decline in imperial power within Germany.
As a result of the Thirty Years War (1618-48) the
Hahshurg territories in central Kurope were welded into a
nineh more coherent dynastic empire, [hough The opposi-
tion of the princes of the Empire had undermined ambitions
in Germany by 16.15. With the weakening of the Ottoman
Turks in the 1 7th century, the dynasty was able to begin the
piecemeal reconqucst of Hungary (rmtpi .1), Largely com-
plete by the end of the century, this established the
llabsburgs as the major dynastic power of central Europe.
The Spanish Empihk
In the west the Spanish branch of the dynasty descended
from Philip II (r. 1556-98) continued the trend which was
clear from the middle of Charles Y's reign: the development
of a Spanish empire that was dependent on the wealth
arising from the Castilian conquest of the New World and
on the deployment of military power and diplomatic
alliances in Europe. Power was transmitted along a series of
military routes leading from Spain to the Low Countries
known collectively as the "Spanish Road" (mup I), and
was challenged in the late 16th century by rebels in the
Low Countries and by England. Ultimately. Spain proved
unable to maintain its control of the northern provinces of
the Netherlands and agreed a temporary truce in 1609.
The axis of power between Madrid anil Vienna remained
vital to the Spanish system and was reinforced as the
llabsburgs in central Europe came under pressure from
rebellious nobles and Protestants. The axis was reaffirmed
in 1615 and Spanish troops were deployed in central Europe
and the Rhincland from 1619, while war was renewed with
ENGLAND
V, „ ih
Set,
2 The Burgundian inheritance
| niifkif*idaiirtoTluH£GliteUlKjMpM77
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| Other Hftbiburu rgnilwM
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BcmndDiv nl rtic Holy Sonar, Ernpiia dftw ! 5 1 i
Sanitam ImuidKy at fa United Rrmrrais 1 &D9
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1 442 DdId III nrqijrjrrrjn
, MMDS Of -
IWEGENBt,-
■
en HOLY
ROMAN
EMPIRE
the Dutch in 1621. The last phase of the Spanish military
system in western Europe showed that it was remarkably
resilient in the face of massive setbacks such as the rebel-
lions in Portugal and Catalonia in 1641) and the defeats in
the Low Countries by France at Lens in 1643 and Rocroi In
1648 (pages 15fh59). Nevertheless, the Treaty of
Westphalia in 1648 forced the recognition of the indepen-
dence of the United Provinces, and the Peace of the
Pyrenees with France in 1659 registered a serious shift in
the balance of power towards France. For the rest of the
17th century, Spain and its dependencies were constantly
on the defensive. They were certainly not in a position to
aid the Austrian Habsburgs, who had to contend with the
last great advance of the Ottomans (mup 3}. This reached
its most western limit in 1683 but would continue to pose a
threat well into the following century.
A Ihe Innos which (harles V inherited in
1 504 consisted ol most of the provinces el
ihe Netheclands and the free county nl
Burgundy, hut nut the duchy ol Burgundy,
which hod been confiscated by Louis XI ol
France in 1477. In Ihe course rjl his reign
Chorles annexed GelcWonrJ. Grnningen,
hidond and the bishopric ol Utrecht. His
successor, Philip II, laced serious opposition
from the nobility from 1 5i5 and a lull scale
revolt in Holland horn 1 57?. this led to ihe
formal repudiation ol Philip in 1581 by
whot were to become the seven United
Provinces of ihe Hefner lands
3 The H«5burgs in Centum iurope 1 61 8-1 700
BrHmdmv ol rtaly Reman Empire ahw ! MB Acpied Irqm Outworn.
| Hwdhoty possessum ItW-H
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A lent* C71 lf!0
~
■* During ihe 1 6th and 1 7 lb centuries the
Austrian Habsburgs emended their territory
ocross Hungary and along the Danube os
lor east as Transylvania. However, in 1681
the Ottomans claimed Hungary as a vassal
state and sent an army of 100,000 men Is
advance an Vienna, the subsequent two
month siege ol the city in 1 683 vras only
lifted when a Polish army attacked the
Ottoman forces and sent them into relteal.
The Habsburgs eventually regained Hongaty
from the Ottomans under the Treaty ol
Catlowiti in 1699.
© EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 © THE HABSBURG EMPIRE: EXPANSION AND DECLINE 1700-1918 pages 174-75
THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER-
REFORMATION IN EUROPE 1517-1648
▼ Protestonlrsm loot ■ number ol forms
otrass Europe. In Getmony ond Scondincrvia
local wtulnr rulers ptoawiwt Ike esiobfrsk-
menl of new skurches, mostly along
Lutkemn lines. In ike Netherlands.. Calvinism
become polilkally predominant during fhe
inlet 1 6th century, while in England the
Anglican Church under Elizabeth I was
Calvinhl milk an episcopal government
furlhfi east. Cohinbm was adoplerf in
Transylvania (in Hungary] - and in Poland
so marry nobles become Praleslanl that
sperial provisions for Iheir loleralion hod to
be agreed in 1569-71.
The Reformation is commonly associated with an
outraged response to the corruption of the Church in
the late 15th and early Idth centuries In tact, the
eiirniiiii'iM mi' ili L . liliinvli had eniiic under attack before
What wets new at this time was the emergence of a powerful
force of religious revivalism which swept across liurope and
sought ail increased rule for the laity in religions life.
Thk impact of Li tiif.iiamsm
Tlii- I'rotcstant Reformation is tradilii ulally dated from .1 I
October 1517 when Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses
against indulgences (documents sold by the Church which
were widely thought to remit the punishments of purgatory)
were posted on the door of the castle church at Wittenhurg
iir Saxony. Luther's Theses provoked a hostile reaction from
the upper hierarchy of the Church. Moreover, the circulation
of printed copies of the Theses and other writings meant that
they received the attention of a wider public than might oth-
erwise have been the case. His attack on financial abuses
within the Church, and his emphasis un the spiritual nature
of ( Ihristianity and the teachings of the gospel, found support
among a broad range of the laity,
Hefore 1517 reform of the Church had been seen as a
legitimate objective; now Luther's call for "reformation" was
regarded as a fundamental threat to both the Church and the
Holy Roman Empire. Luther was excommunicated in 1521
after denying the primacy of the Pope, and later that year he
was placed under an Imperial ban.
i
SARONG i,
o N^
1 The Protestant and Catholic Reformations
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
A number of German princes broke with Rome and
adopted Lutheranism, gaining stronger political control over
the Church in their own territories as a result. This was met
with fierce opposition from Charles V at the Augsburg
Reichstag in 1530, and in response a League of Protestant
estates - including Hesse, Saxony, Wurttemberg, the
Palatinate and several imperial cities - was formed at
Schmalkalden, thus splitting the Empire into two warring
camps. It was not until 1555 that Charles V was finally forced
to concede the Peace of Augsburg, granting full rights to the
secular estates of the Empire to adopt Lutheran reform.
Radical reformation
The reform movement spread rapidly (map 1 ) but for many
it was the ideas of local reformers that mattered most. By the
end of the 1520s a split between the Lutheran Reformation
and the radical (or Reformed) churches was clear. Thomas
Miintzer encouraged a more radical view that was to culmi-
nate in the "Kingdom of Zion" of the Anabaptists at Munster,
while in Zurich Huldreich Zwingli led a reformation which
differed from Lutheranism over, among other things, the
sacrament of Communion.
Protestantism in Switzerland received a blow with the
death of Zwingli in battle in 1531, but it was ultimately
revived by Calvin, a humanist and lawyer born in northern
France. Calvin, who controlled the Genevan church by 1541
(map 2), gave the French-speaking world a coherent and
incisive doctrine as well as an effective organization. He
proved to be the most significant influence on the emergence
of the Reformation in France from the 1540s onwards, when
he sent out a network of preachers to the main French cities.
By 1557 an underground church was in existence and in
1559 it declared itself openly.
The Counter Reformation
In Spain and Italy, where Spanish power posed a significant
block to Protestantism, the internal reform of the Catholic
Church was pushed forward by the foundation of many new
religious orders devoted to charitable and evangelical work
in the lay world, as well as by the militant Society of Jesus
(Jesuits) founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534,
Within the Catholic Church as whole, the establishment
of the means to resist Protestantism was a priority. The three
sessions of the General Council of Trent held between 1545
and 1563 restated theological doctrine in a way which
precluded reunion with Protestants, and a series of decrees
aimed at reforming the clergy and church organization was
issued. Although the pronouncements of the Council of
Trent were not immediately translated into action, the
Council signalled that the Catholic Church was to become
an evangelical movement, seeking to win converts both
among heretics in Europe and the "pagans" of the overseas
world. Crucial in this process was the growing identification
between the Catholic Church and absolute monarchs, who
had the power, through patronage, to win back disaffected
nobles to the Roman Catholic faith.
In France, although the Jesuits were at first not allowed
to preach, a resurgence of Catholic piety and fundamental-
ism eventually put a limit to any further expansion of
Protestantism. When Catherine de Medici (the Queen
Mother) ordered the liquidation of the Protestant leadership
on the eve of St Bartholomew's Day 1572, mass fanaticism
led to the massacre of 10-12,000 Protestants throughout the
country (map 3). The ensuing factional chaos enabled
Protestants to extract from the French crown a lasting
guarantee of religious toleration in the Edict of Nantes
(1598), but this in effect confirmed their minority status.
When their guaranteed strongholds (places de surete) were
removed by the Crown in the 1620s, they were reduced to a
position of sufferance. In 1685 the Edict was revoked and
around 200,000 Protestants (Huguenots) were forced to
convert to Catholicism or flee the country.
In the Netherlands a Calvinist minority seized power in
Holland and Zeeland in 1572 but had to fight a bitter and
prolonged war with Spain which was to last until 1648. In
^* ow, ° i
J* J 6 ' ^
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2 The Reformation in Swttieruuid
B Pianaslanr ckirck estottebei! lot son*
ciEfiad in ibt I dj'ii Etntay
^] tolrcok cantons ond tannines
J Basra where berth Cfl*dnism and
Germany the Peace of Augsburg (1555) began to break
down. Some princes converted to Calvinism in defiance of
the Peace, and the spread of Catholic evangelism (and
Protestant fears of Catholic acts of revenge) created
enormous tension in the Holy Roman Empire, culminating
in the start of the Thirty Years War in 1618 (pages 158-59).
By the end of the war in 1648, when the Treaty of
Westphalia recognized a new order in Europe, Roman
Catholicism had been re-established in France, Poland,
Hungary and Bohemia. However, there was no return to
religious war and, to some extent, religious pluralism was
reluctantly accepted between, if not within, states.
-4 Switzerland was a major powerhouse of
the Protestant Reformation but was intensely
divided. The inner "forest" cantons were
hostile to Zwingli and feared the power of
Zurich where he was based. After his death
in 1 531 Bern took up the military leadership
of Protestantism, giving its protection to
Geneva which, although not technically part
of the Swiss Confederation, was to become
the centre of Swiss Protestant doctrine.
T French Protestantism was over-
whelmingly urban. Crucial to its survival,
however, was the support of a very large
minority of the nobility. Its greatest
concentration was eventually in a "crescent"
stretching from Dauphine in the east to
Poilou in the west. This was largely a
result of the course of the French Wars
of Religion (1 562-98) which rendered
life precarious for Protestants north of the
Loire, especially after the St Bartholomew 's
Day Massacre in August 1 572.
3 The Reformation and religious conflict in France
■ Prolstont rtiwch oslriblistiBd la some period in rhe 1 fctn cgnrurv
O Sire of Catholic mossune ol Ptoreslonrs Aupl 1 572
■ Pioiesnrii Amdemr
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© EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 O REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE 1600-1785 pages 156-57
REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE
1600-1785
A The trial Did execution of (harlft I of
England, Scotland Did if el and {lop) in
January 1 64? was followed by trie abolition
of ihe monarchy and ihe declaration of a
republic. Oliver Cromwell [bottom] came to
prominence as a military leader during ihe
Civil Wor of I tAl-Ai between supporters
of the Icing and of Parliament When
parliamenlDry government failed in 1 653
he become lord Protector rmd proceeded to
rule England until his death in 1 658.
► ll hm been suggested that a general
crisis in ihe 1 7th century, in which wars and
revolts broke outorross Europe, leflwttd
global fcxtors - in partitulor, o delertwalion
in climate that led to famine, moss
migrations and o hall in population growth.
I r is in fori rhs rose lhat there were plague
epidemics in Europe arid China in ihe 1 640s
as wall as parallel political upheavals.
In the 17th century the major states of Europe were
embroiled in the long conflict in central Europe known
as the Thirty Years War {pages 15S-59), which com-
bined dynastic and strategic conflict with religious struggles,
the latter breaking out but It within and lit I ween states. The
growth of armies and of military technology in this period
(pages i5.S-59) eoirtd only be achieved through an increase
in taxation that was so large as to challenge the basis on
which states had been governed since the late 15lh century.
Rebellion ami civil war
When Spain intervened in Germany on behalf of the
Austrian llnbsburg emperor In 1619, and then renewed its
conflict with the Dutch in 1621, It became committed to
massive military expenditure which devastated its finances.
In Castile, which had undergone a loss of population since
the 1590s, the monarchy found the burden increasingly
difficult to bear. Unable to solve the problem by concluding
peace, the government restructured the lax system so that
the hitherto privileged regions of Portugal, Aragon,
Catalonia and Naples bore a greater share of the tax burden.
This caused a national uprising in Portugal in 1640, followed
by rebellions in Catalonia ( 1640-53) and in Naples < 1647— S)
(mcip / ). All this nearly brought down the Spanish state.
In France -governed by Cardinal Richelieu from 1624 -
the steadily increasing lax burden was accompanied by an
increase in royal tax officialdom at the expense of the local
machinery of voting taxes through representative assem-
blies. In addition to the massive increases in direct taxes
from 16,15 (when France formally entered the war against
Spain and the llabsburgs) and the spread of a whole range of
indirect revenues such as those on salt (the gfitwtk). the
direct costs of billeting and supplying the army were borne
by the civil population with increasing reluctance. From
around 1 6.10 numerous local revolts broke out, often sup-
ported by regional notables resentful at the infringements
of their privileges by the Crown, In 1 636—37 the drown was
faced by a large-scale rebellion in the southwest which
brought together under the name of Craquants many
peasant communities outraged by army taxes. In lower
Normandy in 1639 the A'n- t'iedx rebelled against the exten-
sion of the full salt tax regime to that area.
Cardinal Mazarin succeeded Richelieu as Chief Minister
in 1643 and continued the same policies of high taxes and
prolonged war against Spain, even after the Treaty
of Westphalia in 164S. Hy then the Crown
faced not only a discontented peas-
antry but also opposition
from within the roval
bureaucracy over the suspension of salaries, and a nobility
unhappy with the exercise of power hy the Chief Minister.
The result was a confused period of civil war known as the
Fnnuiun, which paralysed French policy until 1653.
Crisis across Ei ropk
In Britain the attempts of Charles I to impose his
religious policies on ihe Scots exposed the weakness at the
core of the Stuart monarchy. Charles attempted to govern
and raise revenues without Parliament throughout the
1630s, hut he was confronted hy a tax-payers' revolt and by
the fact that he could not raise an army without some form
of parliamentary grant. The summoning of Parliament in
1640 triggered a sequence of events that imposed shackles
on the king's powers and then provoked him to try a
military solution The resulting civil war ( 1642— IS) led to
the king's execution and the proclamation of a republic in
1649. Opposition in Ireland and Scotland was crushed in
164*1-50 by the New Model Army under Oliver Cromwell.
In 1653 the republic was replaced by a military dictator-
ship, with Cromwell as "Lord Protector".
During the same period, in the United Provinces of the
Netherlands (tunned in 157') after the Protestant Prince
William 1 of Orange led a revolt against Spanish Catholic
rule), an attempt to impose quasi-royal rule tinder William
II of Orange collapsed and the Orangist Party was purged
from positions of power by the oligarchic States Party. There
were also struggles tor power in Sweden, and in the 1620s
and 1630s large-scale peasant revolts broke out tn the
Alpine territories of the Austrian llabsburgs. Further east,
Cossack rebellions flared up in the Polish Commonw'calth
in the 1640s and 1650s and in Russia in the 1670s,
Not surprisingly, some contemporaries saw a pattern in
all this. The English preacher Jeremiah Whittaker declared
in 1643 that "these are days of shaking and this shaking is
universal". Some modern historians have discerned a sys-
tematic "general crisis" in which the political upheavals of
the mid-1 7th century were a symptom of profound eco-
nomic transformation. In contrast, the trend throughout
Furope after 1 660 was towards political stability.
1 WADS AND REVOLTS IN EUROPE
1618-1680
taes effected ev
pan mod
pofiliccl revnJl
* fjntre »f (Wdor reioli
• Centred potan'renll
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
The establishment of stability
Peasant revolts continued in France until the 1670s.
However, despite the continuation of severe economic
problems and the massive growth of armed forces to enable
the annexation of territory (map 2), these revolts did not
seriously threaten the state. After Mazarin's death in 1661
Louis XIV assumed personal rule, which deflected the
discontent of the nobility and assuaged the conflicts
between government, officialdom and the courts. Thereafter
he ruled as absolute monarch with the aid of a centralized
bureaucratic government - a pattern which was to continue
until 1789. Without any significant opposition, Louis was
able to impose religious uniformity in 1685.
The doctrine of "absolute power", though not new,
became the keynote for many rulers eager to imitate the
splendours of Louis' court at Versailles. In east-central
Europe the Hohenzollerns - rulers of Brandenburg and
Prussia - gradually increased their power after the Elector
Frederick William I came to an agreement with the nobil-
ity, under which his military powers were extended in
return for the reinforcement of their controls over their ten-
antry. By the middle of the 18th century the power of the
Prussian state (map 3) equalled that of the Habsburgs in
Vienna, who were themselves building an empire in the
Danubian region (pages 152-53).
Concert of Europe
Elsewhere in Europe the defeat of the monarchy led to the
emergence of oligarchic parliamentary systems - Britain
from 1689, the United Provinces from 1702, Sweden from
1721. In Spain, the regime of the Bourbon dynasty, con-
firmed by the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, imposed a
centralized government on the French model. Thus,
although major wars continued to be endemic and com-
mercial rivalry both in Europe and overseas was fierce,
governments were far more securely anchored than in the
earlier 17th century. Religious uniformity, while still
formally insisted on, was in practice no longer so vital. A
Europe in which one or other dynastic state (Spain in the
16th century, France in the 17th century) threatened to
dominate the rest had been replaced by a "concert of
Europe" of roughly balanced powers that was to last until
the revolutionary period in the 1790s.
2 The acquisitions of Louis XIV 1643-1715
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acquisitions made under Cardinal Richelieu
to expand French territory at the expense of
the Holy Roman Empire. Ihe high point of
his achievements came in 1 684 when his
acquisition of Luxembourg during a war
with Spain and the Empire was confirmed by
the Treaty of Regensburg. From 1 685 the
threat he posed to other powers led to a
series of alliances being formed against him.
Eventually, the Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
placed limits on French expansion.
T Hie duchy of Prussia, founded in 1 525
out of the remaining lands of the Teutonic
Knights, passed to the Hohenzollern electors
of Brandenburg in 1 61 8. Under Elector
Frederick William I (1640-48),
Brandenburg-Prussia did well out of the
Peace of Westphalia in 1 648 and the
Northern War ( 1 655-60) to extend its
territories. His successors continued the
process of expansion until Frederick the
Great (1740-86) put the seal on the
emergence of Prussia as a great power by
his successful annexation of Silesia in the
War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48).
DENMARK
PRUSSIA'. SSfiRETO
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LITHUANIA
3 The expansion of Prussia
1618-1795
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1713-17.10
1748-1786
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© EUROPEAN STATES 1500-1600 pages 146-47 © REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 1789-1815 pages 266-67
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WARFARE IN EUROPE
1450-1750
The rising cost of waging war in
the i hh century
Average annual Spanish expenditure
(in florins)
A By ihe lute I 6tti century ihe military
expenditure of Ihe Spanish monarchy had
placed a severe burden an Castile. Philip il's
armies were periodically left without pay,
resulting in nine major mutinies in the army
of Flanders between 1 570 and 1 607.
V Die development of frontiers was
accompanied by the construction of (new
networks of fortifications, lot example in
northern France and in Russia, file Habs-
burgs ettoMislied a mililarih/ governed
frontier zone in Hungary and Croatia,
in which soldiers \ often Serbs) were
settled in viloges lor defence
against the Ottomans,
I Major forth icatidks
*ND 9*TTIIS 14S0- 1 750
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.etweeo ihe ISthand I Kill centuries F.uropcati warfare
.was massively transformed in scale and complexity,
':itul this had a powerful impact rut both state and
society, !t has been argued that the transformation
amounted to a "military revolution" led by the Swedes and
the Dutch in the decades arnutul 1 fit It). However, this view
underestimates the rule of France and Spain, and the
process of military change is now seen as one that was
evolutionary rather than revolutionary,
ARM IKS A!M» THE STATE
The driving force behind military change was the develop-
ment of a highly competitive state structure, ttoth regionally
(as in 15th-century Italy) and across Europe, Countries
which hud not invested in major military reorganization by
the 17th century - such as Poland - were seriously disad-
vantaged, hut in those countries where military expenditure
was high the impact was felt at all levels of society.
Governments needed to he able to mobilize resources for
war on a large scale, and this led to many western European
states becoming "machines built lor the battlefield", their
essential purpose being to raise, provision rind deploy
armies in the pursuit of their ruler's strategic objectives,
In going to war, European rulers in the Kith and 1 7th cen-
turies were primarily concerned with safeguarding the
interests of their dynasties, its in the case of the Italian and
llabsburg-Valois Wars in the 15211s to 1550s (jiccgcs }4(>-47.
J 52-5,1), ah hough at times religious and commercial
concerns also played a role. In addition there were several
civil wars involving a degree of ideological or religious
dispute, such as the French Wars of Religion I ] 562—^8 ) and
the English Civil War 1 1642-iK).
AllTIU.EtlY AM) SIEGE WARFARE
Changes in warfare were made possible by a number of
crucial technical innovations. First, the growing sophistica-
tion of artillery in the 15th century altered the terms of war
In favour of attack In mid-1 5th-ecntury France, more
effective, smaller-calibre bronze cannons replaced the
existing, unreliable wrought -iron version. One of the most
widely noted features of Charles VIll's invasion of Italy in
14°4 was his deployment of the formidable French royal
artillery. Bronze, however, was expensive, and the next
important development was the manufacture of reliable
east-iron guns in England during the 1540s. Cast-iron guns
were three or four times cheaper than their bronze equiva-
lents, and the traditional cannon foundries of Europe were
unable to compete until the next century.
The earliest cautions were huge and unwieldy, best
suited for sieges. The major powers - Italy, France and
Spain - therefore embarked on highly expensive pro-
grammes of rcfortification to render fortresses and cities
impregnable to artillery bombardment. By the late Kith
century, high and relatively thin walls and towers had given
way to earthwork const ructions consisting of ditches and
ramparts which were to dominate the landscape of many
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 3
European cities until they were dismantled in the 19th
century. This rendered warfare much more static, with cam-
paigns centring on great siege operations; some of the major
battles of the period - Pavia (1525), St-Quentin (1557),
Nordlingen (1634), Rocroi (1643) and Vienna (1683) were
linked to such sieges (map 1). As a consequence of these
developments in siege warfare, wars of rapid movement of
the kind embarked upon by the English in 14th-century
France became unthinkable.
Changes on the battlefield
Artillery had its place on the battlefield, but because of dif-
ficulties in using it tactically, it was slow to gain dominance.
A further agent for change was the application of a diversity
of armaments, formations and tactics: heavily armed cavalry
gradually gave way to massed ranks of pikemen and, from
the early 16th century onwards, archers began to be
replaced by infantry armed with handguns. At Ravenna
(1512), Marignano (1515) and Bicocca (1522), field artillery
and handguns inflicted severe casualties on pike squares. To
combat this, large mixed infantry formations were used,
armed partly with pikes and partly with muskets.
Despite these developments, the heavy cavalry did not
disappear; in fact cavalry in general was overhauled to make
use of firearms, most notably among the German reiters.
Commanders now sought to organize infantry and cavalry
more effectively. However, it was still difficult to manoeuvre
large groups of men on the battlefield, especially since the
main battles consisted of vast squares of infantrymen. The
necessity of increasing the rate of fire of handguns led to the
development by the Dutch armies in the 1590s of "volley
fire", in which the infantry was laid out in long lines, firing
rank after rank. The development of the "countermarch" -
a combination of volley fire, advancing ranks and cavalry
charging with their swords drawn - gave the Swedish king
Gustav Adolf's armies the crucial edge in the 1630s, for
example in the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631 (map 2).
All these changes meant that battles took place over
larger areas and involved greater numbers of soldiers. In
1525, at Pavia, the French king's army of 28,000 men was
defeated by a Habsburg army of 20,000; at Breitenfeld
Gustav Adolf had 41,000 against 31,000 Habsburg troops; in
1709, at Malplaquet, a French army of 76,000 faced an
Allied army of 105,000. While the maximum number sus-
tainable for a whole campaign in the mid-16th century
seems to have been about 50,000, by 1700 the number was
around 200,000 and by 1710 France, for example, could
sustain a total military establishment of 310,000 men.
< The Thirty Years War was in fact a
complex of wars which combined dynastic
and strategic conflict with religious
struggles, the latter breaking out both
within and between states. Germany
became a battleground in which all the
military powers developed and tested their
strength; the armies frequently plundered
towns, villages and farms for supplies,
adding to the devastation. Each phase of
the war saw a widening area of operations.
The Holy Roman Emperor's power was at its
height in 1 629 but thereafter began to
collapse. Foreign intervention prolonged the
war from 1635 to 1648.
The composition of armies
Spoilt Amy of flwatH I57S
ft
ipflXSi mlWy M r HBHfl I o4v
IrwHnyol A.., I4«-*1
▲ During the 16th century foreign
mercenaries frequently outnumbered
national subjects in the armies of the kings
of France and Spain. Gradually the Italians,
who had been the great soldiers of fortune
in the 1 5th century, were supplanted first
by the Swiss and then by Germans from
the Rhineland and Westphalia. English
mercenaries served in the Netherlands in
the later 1 6th century, and Scots were
particularly active in Germany during
the Thirty Years War.
© EUROPE 1350-1500 pages 106-7 O REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 1789-1815 pages 166-67
THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS
Between 1770 and the outbreak of the First World War in 1^14 a succession
of revolutions, industrial as well as political, brought widespread material
progress and social change. These developments were international in
character although their global impact was unevenly distributed. They had a
common origin in the unparalleled expansion of European influence -
economic, political, demographic and cultural - throughout the world.
*■ InlhtiMJ-IMitmlwy
Britain wm lh< world's boding
industrial nation, otrhoogn it
process of industrialization was
gathering momenluni in
continental Europe and the
Urwlrd Stales Britain's tending
position was demons (rated by
the Great Exhibition. whiaS
opened in London in 1851 and
contained over 7.000 British and
as many foreign exhibits divided
into four main categories: row
materials, machinery.
manufactures and fine arts. It
was hawed in o spectoly binll
iron and gloss exhibition hall
(the "Crystal Palate") which was
itself a hot example of British
MQi ra erin Jot.
In tlits period most nt' the Americas, At'rifii and
Australasia, together with much of Asia, became
dominated oil her by Europium state*, or by
peoples nt* European culture and descent. This
process, which .slowly hut surely transformed the
character oi 'global civilization and forged the
modern world, was bused largely on Europe's
economic and technological ascendancy. By the
niid-bstii century European commercial primacy
was already established, hot its lead in
manufacturing was apparent only in some areas,
such as armaments, ships and books, and it lagged
behind Asia in a tew fields, such as porcelain arid
textile manufacture.
In the later I Nth and early I'ith centuries there
was R new wave of economic growth and
development, first in Britain and then in northwest
Europe. This involved the concentration and
mechanization of manufacturing in factories, and
the use of coal to generate steam power - changes
which, while not entirely replacing domestic
production or more traditional energy sources,
revolutionized production, initially of textiles and
iron and subsequently of other industries. latter
known as the "Industrial Revolution", the changes
led to such a rapid increase in manufacturing that
by the middle of the lV>th century Britain was
described as "the workshop of the world".
THE SPREAD OK INDUSTRIALIZATION
During the l*Jth century, industrialization spread
first to northwestern Europe and the eastern states
of the United States, and then further afield. This
led to an enormous increase in world trade (which
trebled between 187(1 and 1414) and in mass
manufacturing. By 1900 both the Tufted States and
Germany surpassed Britain in some areas of
production, such as that of iron and steel. Despite
this, Britain remained the leading international
trader and investor, with London the centre of the
world capital market and of the international gold
standard, Britain was also the most urbanized
society tu the world, with only a tiny minority of its
population directly working in agriculture
Elsewhere, the majority of the population - even
in des eloped countries such as the tinted States
and France -still lived and worked in rural areas,
much as their forebears had done. Global trade,
industrialization and urbanization were still
relatively undeveloped in 1914, yet Western
innovations had already transformed tunny aspects
of life throughout the world. Steam power provided
energy not only for faetories but also for railways
and ocean-going ships, which, along with the
telegraph and later the telephone, dramatically
reduced the time and cost of long-distance
transport and communications.
POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS
In the political sphere the American Revolution of
1775-83, which ended British rule over the
Thirteen Colonies, was followed by the French
Revolution, which began in 1789 and signalled a
new era in the "Old World". Tom I'aine, an
influential transatlantic radical wrote in 1791: "It is
an age of Revolutions in which everything may be
looked for." His optimism was premature, however,
for the French Revolution failed in both its Jacobin
and Napoleonic forms and was followed, after 1815.
by a period of reaction in Europe, led by the
autocratic rulers of Russia, Austria and Prussia.
This did not, however, prevent the growth of
Liberalism in Europe, which led to revolutions in
France and Belgian) in 1 8.10 and to reforms in
other countries such as Britain. In 1848 there were
further revolutions in France and (iermany which,
although not entirely successful, led to the
democratization of political institutions in western
Europe. By the early 20th century all European
states, including Russia, had representative
assemblies, most of which were elected by a wide
adult male suffrage. Women were still generally
excluded from the franchise, but this restriction
was being challenged and undermined by
campaigners in Europe and North America. In the
United States and the British dominions most white
men and some women could vote, but not the non-
European ethnic groups.
In most of the world non -democratic forms of
government prevailed {map J). In both the Middle
and the Far East, dynastic rulers with autocratic
powers flourished until the second decade of the
20th century. In the Asian, African and Caribbean
colonies of the European powers, the native
inhabitants were generally not allowed any direct
voice in government, liven in Europe, democracy
developed under the cloak of a much older and
more absolutist political tradition: hereditary
monarchy. France was the only major European
power to become a republic before 1917. Bismarck
- the dominant political figure in late 19th-century
Europe - remained Chancellor of Germany only as
long as he retained the support of the kaiser. The
importance of hereditary dynasties in the European
state system was illustrated when the murder of the
Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand, at Sarajevo in
1914 precipitated the First World War.
A Ihe European revolutions of
1848, sparked off by the
overthrow ol King Louis Philippe
in Fronts ond the seizure ol the
(homher of Deputies (shown
here), largely foiled in Iheir
short-lerm socialist aims. In ihe
long lerm they encouraged ihe
liberalized on end
democratization of mony
Europeon constitutions
1 Pt>uacAisrsTHisl9H
I tofcnd IsotoiY
•4 All independent countries in
ihe Americas embraced
republicanism during the 1 9lh
century, although the franchise
was usually extremely limited
ond elections wet e often
suspended. By 1914 much of
Europe was ruled by elected
governments, although outside
France and Portugal manarchs
still acted as heads of state. The
extent la which they actually
exercised power varied bom
country lo country, as did ihe
proportion ol citizens entitled to
vote. Those areas of Asio and
Afrira not under Europeon
control or influence were ruled
by autocratic monorchs
A Military conflicts within
Europe in this period were
mused largely by the territorial
ambitions of the French, the
Russians and the Prussians.
Smaller conflicts arose as
Belgium. Greece, Hungary, Italy
end, nl the very end ol the
period, the Balkan states, (ought
off colonial rule and established
their independence.
▼ The American Civil War wos
the Moodiest con flic t in American
history. The unsuccessful attempt
by the unnumbered Confederates
to storm ttie Unionists duting the
Battle of Gettysburg in July 1 Ml
is generally considered to he the
turning point o( the war.
MILITARY CONFLICTS
In the 19th century Europe was the most powerful
region in the world both in economic and military
terms, but it was seldom united either at the
national or the international level. The growth of
nationalist sentiment encouraged the emergence of
"nation-states" such as Germany and Italy, hut
several great powers - Russia, Austria and the
United Kingdom - were composed of different
ethnic groups whose antipathies to each other were
increased by the growth of nationalist feeling.
Nationalism and territorial ambition led many
European countries to attack one another. There
were numerous wars in western Europe as well as
in the unstable region of the Balkans {map 2).
The Franco-Prussian war of 1.S7D-71 generated
not only hundreds of thousands of casualties but
also the Paris Commune, in which socialists briefly
seized power. The late 1 9th century saw the
emergence of new ideologies of egalitarianism and
class conflict - Marxism, syndicalism and
anarchism - which rejected liberal democracy and
favoured "direct action" such as industrial strikes
and assassination.
Europe was a divided continent long before the
First World War (1914-18) exacerbated its
problems. This was apparent even on other
continents, where many wars in the late 18th and
19th centuries were fought between European
powers (map 3). France and Spain, for example,
helped the American colonists gain their
independence from Britain, and Britain captured
many French, Spanish and Dutch colonies during
its struggle with Napoleon.
RESISTANCE TO IMPERIAL RULE
The period 1770-1914 has been described as the
"Age of European Imperialism" because it was
characterized by a rapid expansion in European
influence over the rest of the world. However, at no
time between 1770 and 1914 was most of the world
under direct European control. In the Americas
European colonial rule was confined to the
periphery, while in the Middle East and Asia
important indigenous states survived despite the
expansion of European influence. The extensive
Manchu Qing Empire remained largely intact until
the second decade of the 20th century.
Japan acquired a maritime empire and rapidly
developed its manufactures and foreign trade with
the help of Western technology. Other Asian rulers,
such as the shahs of Persia and the kings of Siam,
kept their independence by playing off European
rivals against each other. Even in India - regarded
by the British as the most valuable part of their
empire - control of about half the subcontinent was
shared with native maharajahs. In Africa most of
the interior remained beyond direct European
control until the late 19th century. Furthermore,
some native African states inflicted defeat on
European armies - as the Zulus did at Isandhlwana
in 1879, the Mahdists at Khartoum in 1885 and the
Ethiopians at Adowa in 1896.
Most European colonies were of minor economic
importance to their mother countries, although
there were some notable exceptions. Few colonies
outside North America attracted large numbers of
European settlers, except Australia, where the
initial settlements were established with the aid of
transported convicts. Very few Europeans settled in
equatorial Africa or Asia, and even India attracted
only a few thousand long-term British residents.
CHANGES IN POPULATION
In the 19th century the distribution of the world's
population changed considerably. Although Asia
remained far more populous than any other
continent, the population of Europe increased
rapidly, while that of North America exploded -
largely as a result of European migration. The
expansion of the European empires in Africa and
Asia facilitated both Asian and European migration,
while the African slave trade continued to Brazil
and Cuba until the late 19th century.
The great majority of people who left Europe -
more than 30 million over the period - migrated to
the United States. Americans, although they often
retained some aspects of their European heritage,
were proud that they had left the restrictions and
conflicts of the "Old World" for the opportunities
and advantages of the "New World" and supported
the isolationist policy of the US government. The
combination of a low tax burden with rapid
westward expansion and industrialization gave the
majority of white Americans a very high standard
of living. By the late 19th century the United States
was the richest nation in the world, although its
military power and international status were still
relatively undeveloped.
CROSS-CULTURAL INFLUEINCES
The worldwide success of the European peoples
encouraged them to believe in their own
superiority, hut it also exposed them to other
cultures which subtly altered their own civilization.
Japanese art, for example, inspired French and
Dutch painters and British designers, while
Hinduism prompted the fashionahle cult of
theosophy. In North America, popular music was
influenced by African-American blues and jazz.
In Latin America Roman Catholicism became
the main religion of the native peoples, but was
obliged to make compromises with local practices
and beliefs. Outside the Americas European
Christianity had little success in converting other
ethnic and religious groups, Islam, for example,
remained dominant in the Middle East and much of
South and Southeast Asia, while Hinduism
remained the religion of the majority in India. The
Chinese and the Japanese largely remained loyal to
their traditional religions, despite much missionary
activity by the Christian churches, which was often
prompted by deep divisions between the Protestant
and Roman Catholic churches.
Throughout the period the vast majority of the
world's ethnic groups remained attached to their
own indigenous traditions and had little knowledge
of other languages or cultures. Even in 1914
European influence on the world was stilt limited
and undeveloped in many respects. The largest
European transcontinental empires - those of
Britain and France - did not reach their apogee
until after the First World War, and European
cultural influence only reached its zenith in the
later 20th century, by which time it had been
subsumed in a wider "Westernization" of the world.
A Mony of ihe wore outside
Europe were fought by European
powers, or by people of
European origin. In Latin
America, lar example, there was
o sequence of wors ol liberation,
os the Spanish colonial elites
stoged sutressful revolutions
against rule from Spain.
^ One effect of ihe increased
toniact between Europe end the
countries ol Asia during the 1 9th
century was on exchange of
cultural influences. Ihe landscape
woodcuts of Kolsushiko HoScusai.
such os (his view of Mount Fuji
from Nokahara - one of a series
entitled IhirtySix Vism ol
Mount fu/7 1 1B26-331- ore
recognized as having influenced
the work of Von Gogh ond other
Euro peon artists.
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
1775-83
A The Declaration d( Independence was
drafted by Thomas Jefferson \ 'iqhf\. wi1r>
the assistance ol Benjamin Franltfin [left
and John Adams (cenrVe), and adopted by
Ihe Continental Congress on 4 Jwly 1774.
T In 1 7(3 Britain tmlogorraed Ihe
Amerkon colonists by unilaterally deciding
to maintain a standing army in North
America la protect its newly acquired assets,
and by prohibiting while settlement to the
west of on imposed Protktmtilion Line.
The American Revolution or War at Independence gave
birtli tu a new nation, die I'nited States of America, It
involved tvw simultaneous struggles: a military eonfliet
with Britain, which was largely resolve*.) by ] 7S ] . and a poli-
tical conflict within America itself over whether to demand
complete independence from Britain and, if so, how the
resulting new nation should be structured.
Prior to the outbreak of war in ] 775, the territory that
became the United States comprised thirteen separate
British colonies, each with its own distinct burgeoning
culture, institutions and economy {map 1 ). Before 17f>3 the
colonists, with their own colonial legislatures, had enjoyed
a large measure of self-government, except in overseas
trade, and had rarely objected to their membership of the
British Empire. Changes to British policy after 176.1 gradu-
ally destroyed this arrangement and created a sense of
common grievance among the colonies.
Causes nut grievance
The spoils of the Seven Years War (1756-63) greatly
enlarged the territory of British North America and estab-
lished British dominance over the continent {map 2). In
order to police this vast area and to reduce substantial
wartime debt, the British government took steps to manage
its North American empire more effectively. Customs offi-
cers were ordered to enforce long-standing laws regulating
colonial shipping (Navigation Acts. 1650-96), and a series
of measures was passed by the British parliament which fur
the first lime taxed the colonists directly (Sugar Act, 1 764;
Quartering Acts, 1765; Ntamp Act, 1765). Having no repre-
sentation in the British parliament, the colonists viewed
these measures as a deliberate attempt to bypass the colo-
nial assemblies, and they responded by boycotting British
goitds. Although most of these taxes were repealed in 1770,
Committees of Correspondence were organized throughout
[he Thirteen Colonies to publicize American grievances
.
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structure of the American colonies became
increasingly diversified and sophisticated as
ihe population irtciedsed sixfold la same
1 ,500,000. Manufacturing developed on o
signihtant scale and there was a dramatic
growth of trade, not only with the mother
country and the British West Indies hot olso
- illegally - with the French Went Indies
and continental Europe,
In response to the Tea Act of 1773, a symbolic "tea
party" was held when protestors dumped incoming tea into
Boston harbour rather than pay another "unjust" lax. The
situation worsened when the boundaries of the now-British
colony of Quebec were extended to the territory north of
the Ohio River (Quebec Act, 1774). Feeling the need to
enforce its authority, Britain passed the Coercive Acts of
1774 (the "Intolerable Acts"), which closed Boston harbour
ami imposed:! form of martial law. Meeting in I'hiladelphJs
in 1774, the First Continental Congress asserted the right
to "no taxation without representation" and, although still
hoping that an amicable settlement could he reached with
Britain, denounced these new British laws as violations of
American rights. When Britain made it clear that the
colonies must either submit to its rule or be crushed (the
Restraining Act. 1775), the movement for full American
independence began. War broke out when British troops
clashed Willi ihe colonial militia at Lexington and Concord
in April 1 775.
At the start of the war, the American cause seemed pre-
carious. The colonists were deeply divided about what they
were fighting for and faced the full might of the British
limpire. Britain had the greatest navy and the best-equipped
army in the world, although the small size of the British army
in the American colonies - composed of regular soldiers,
American loyalists, Hessian mercenaries and Native America]!
tribes, especially the Six Nations and the Cherokee - is evi-
dence that Britain did not initially take the American threat
seriously The Americans, however, with militiamen and
volunteers, had mure than enough manpower to defend them-
selves, and in most battles they outnumbered British troops.
Much of the fighting, especially in the south, took the form of
guerrilla warfare, at which American militiamen, aided by the
civilian population, were much more adept than the British
regular troops. They had the advantage of fighting on their
own territory and, unlike the British, had easy access to sup-
plies. By the war's end America had also won the support of
Britain's enemies - France, Spain and Holland.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
The Declaration ok Independence
On 4 July 177C) the Second Continental Confess adopted
Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. This
document furnished the mora] and philosophical justifica-
tion for the rehelliiHi, arguing th;it governments are formed
in order to secure the "self-evident" truth of the right of
each individual to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness"
and that their power is derived from the consent of those
they govern. Grounded in the notion that "all men art-
created equal", the Declaration asserted the colonists' inde-
pendence from Britain and effectively cut all ties with the
mother country.
Dee 1775
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3 The American War of Independence 1 775-83
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Phases in the h<;iitinc
The fighting took place in
three distinct phases. The
first phase (1 775-76) was
mainly located in New
England but culminated in the
American failure to capture
Quebec in December 1 775, thus
enabling the British to retain
Canada. The middle phase
(1776-79) was fought mainly in the
mid- At Ian tic region. The American
victory at Saratoga {October 1777)
proved to be a major turning point
in the war as it galvanized France
into entering the war on America's
side, contributing badly needed finan-
cial aid and its powerful navy and
troops. The final phase took place in the
south and west (1778-81). Naval warfare
now assumed greater importance, with
French/American and British ships fighting for
control of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean
Sea. Spain declared war against Britain in June
1779, followed by Holland in 178(). In September 1781
the French fleet drove the British navy from Chesapeake
Bay, preparing die way for the British surrender at Yorktown
(October 1781). the last major battle of the war.
Occasional fighting continued for over a year, but a new
British cabinet decided to open peace negotiations. The
Treaty of Paris (September 17M) recognized the new repulv
lie and established generous boundaries from the Atlantic
Coast to the Mississippi, and from the Oreat bakes and
Canada to the 31st parallel in the south. The Revolution w;is
not accepted by all Americans (about one-third remained
loyal to Britain), and up to 100,000 colonists fled the
country to forai the core of English-speaking Canada (pages
188-89). The ideas expressed in the Declaration of
Independence were enshrined in the American Constitution
of 1 7S9, which legally established the federal republic and
was subsequently used as an inspiration for other liberation
movements, most notably in France.
A The botdefronls ol the Imwinm Wor
of Independence slretthed from Quebec in
the north In Florida in iJie south, and from
the Arioirik roasl as far west as what is now
southwestern Illinois. The dense American
lores! and wilderness had a rrunol import
on the movement of hoops, and the
proximity of almost all ihe battlefields lo
either the sea or a rivet indirrnes the still-
primitive nature af overland
communication.
© COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA 1600-1763 pages 124-25 © WESTWARD EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES 1783-1910 pages 182-83
REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC
EUROPE 1789-1815
▲ The French Revolution did not occur
simultaneously throughout the country, but
spread out into the countryside from urban
centres. Some areas remained stubbornly
resistant to revolutionary rule, but by the
mid-1790s even these were brought under
the control of central government. The
crowned heads of Europe feared the spread
of revolutionary fervour into their own
countries, and were thus anxious to quell
the revolutionary French. However, the
Austrians were eventually defeated at
Fleurus, while the Prussians were repulsed in
Alsace, as were the Sardinians in Savoy, the
Spanish in the south, and the British on the
Vendee coast and the Mediterranean.
Avignon (a papal state) was incorporated
into France in 1791.
The French Revolution of 1789 represented a major
turning point in the history of continental Europe, for
it marked the beginning of the demise of absolutist
monarchies and their replacement by nation states in which
the middle classes held political power. It arose partly from
attempts by rung Louis XVI to overcome a mounting finan-
cial crisis by summoning the Estates-General, a body of
elected representatives which had not met since 1614. He
thus aroused hopes of reform among the Third Estate (the
bourgeoisie or middle classes) - hopes that could only be
fulfilled by an attack on the judicial and financial privileges
of the First and Second Estates (the aristocracy and clergy).
While the king prevaricated, the First and Second Estates
refused to surrender any of their privileges, and on 17 June
1789 the Third Estate proclaimed itself a National Assembly.
Riots had broken out in many parts of France early in
1789 (map 1) in response to a disastrous harvest in 1788
that had reduced many peasants and industrial workers to
starvation. When the people of Paris stormed the Bastille
prison - symbol of royal absolutism - on 4 July 1789, an
enormous wave of popular unrest swept the country, and in
what was known as the "Great Fear" the property of the
aristocracy was looted or seized. The National Assembly
reacted by abolishing the tax privileges of the aristocracy
and clergy and promulgating the"Declaration of the Rights
of Man and of the Citizen", in which the main principles of
bourgeois democracy - liberty, equality, property rights and
freedom of speech - were enunciated. Other reforms fol-
lowed, including the replacement of the provinces of France
by a centralized state divided into 84 departments.
Powerless to stop these changes, the king tried, unsuc-
cessfully, to flee the country in June 1791, thus provoking
anti-royalist attacks. Tension between the moderates and
anti-royalists grew as French royalist armies, backed by
Austria and Prussia, gathered on France's borders. In April
1792 war was declared on Austria, and in September the
Prussians invaded northeastern France, but were repulsed
at Valmy (map 1). A new National Convention, elected by
universal male suffrage, declared France a republic.
The Terror
Louis XVI was put on trial and executed in January 1793.
Anti-revolutionary uprisings, the presence on French soil of
enemy armies and continuing economic problems, led to a
sense of national emergency. The Assembly appointed a
Committee of Public Safety, dominated by the extremist
Jacobins and led by Robespierre. A reign of terror began,
with the aim of imposing revolutionary principles by force,
and more than 40,000 people (70 per cent of them from the
peasantry or labouring classes) were executed as "enemies
of the Revolution".
In order to combat the foreign threat, the Committee of
Public Safety introduced conscription. During 1794 the
French proved successful against the invading forces of the
First Coalition (map 3), and victory at Fleurus in June left
them in control of the Austrian Netherlands. In July the
moderate faction ousted Robespierre, who went to the guil-
lotine. Executive power was then vested in a Directory of
five members, and a five-year period of moderation set in.
The Rise of Napoleon
The Directory made peace with Prussia, the Netherlands
and Spain, but launched an offensive against Austria in Italy,
headed by a young general, Napoleon Bonaparte (map 2).
He was brilliantly successful during 1796, forcing Austria
out of the war, but then led an unsuccessful expedition to
Egypt to try and cut Britain's communications with its
Indian empire. Meanwhile, the Directory had become pro-
foundly unpopular with all sections of the population, and
was overthrown by Napoleon on his return to France in
October 1799. In 1800, following the first-ever plebiscite,
from which he gained overwhelming support, he was con-
firmed as First Consul of France - a position that gave him
supreme authority. He proceeded to introduce a number of
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
measures to create a centralized administrative structure,
including the founding of the Hank of France in I SOU.
Between 1801 and 1804 a body of laws was created, known
as tile Napoleonic Civil Code, which embodied many of the
fundamental principles of the FYeuell Revolution and was
subsequently imposed in countries conquered hy Napoleon's
armies. In 1801 he signed a concordat with the Pope, thus
helping to ensure that he received the Pope's approval when
he declared himself emperor in 1804.
Military CAMPAIGNS
Hy the end of 1800 France had once again defeated Austrian
forces in northern Italy and by February ISO] it had made
peace with all its opponents except Britain. The following
year it signed the Treaty of Amiens with Britain, but the
resulting period of peace was not to last long, and in 1805
Austria. Russia and Sweden joined Britain to form the Third
Coalition [map 3). In October the French fleet was com-
pletely destroyed by the British in the Battle of Trafalgar,
but by the end of the year Napoleon's armies had inflicted
heavy defeats on the Austrians and Russians at Ulni and
Austerlitz respectively. They then moved on through the
Gentian states, defeating the Prussians in Oetoher 1806,
Following his defeat of the Russians at Friedland in June
1807. Napoleon persuaded the tsar Co join forces with
France to defeat Hritain. which once again was isolated as
Napoleon's sule effective opponent.
War against the Fifth COALmon
In 1808 Charles IV of Spain was forced to altdieate in favour
of Napoleon s brother Joseph. The Spanish revolted and the
British sent a supporting army to the Iberian Peninsula
[map 2). Elsewhere in Europe the economic hardships
resulting from the French military presence tended to make
Napoleon's rule unpopular with his subject nations. The
imposition of the Napoleonic Civil Code in countries
annexed by France, while potentially beneficial to the citi-
zens of Europe, still represented an unwelcome domination
by the French. It also caused disquiet among Napoleon's
allies, the Russians, who in 1810 broke with France, even-
tually joining Hritain and Portugal in the Fifth Coalition.
In 1812 Napoleon attempted his most ambitious annex-
ation of territory yet, launching an invasion of Russia.
Although he reached Moscow in September, he found it
deserted and, with insufficient supplies to feed his army, he
was forced to retreat. In Spain the Uritish and Portuguese
armies finally overcame the French, chasing them back
onto French soil. At the same time the Prussians, Austrians
and other subject states seized the opportunity to rebel
against French rule. The Fifth Coalition armies took Paris
in March 1814, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to the
island of Elba, and Louis Will ascended the French throne.
A year later, while the ( loalition members were negoti-
ating the reshaping of Fktrope at the Congress of Vienna,
Napoleon escaped and raised an army as he marched north
through France. Following defeat at Waterloo in 1815, he
was sent into permanent exile on St Helena The recon-
vened Congress of Vienna deprived France of all the
territory it had acquired since 1792, It could not, however,
prevent the spread of revolutionary and Napoleonic ideas in
Europe, as the maintenance or adoption of the Napoleonic
Civil Code in a number of countries after IS 15 testified.
T Napoleons mitt wujed war ocross
Europe in his attempt lo impose French rule
and ihe Civil Code throughout the continent.
The turning point in his, fortunes came in
18)2 when, with on ormy already lighlino,
in Spain, he embarked on on invasion of
Russia. French supply linos were stretched
too far to support the army through the
Russian winter, and the troops were forced
lo retreat, with mast of the survivors
deserting. Napoleon was eventually
raptured in 1 Bid on French soil by the
armies of the Fifth Coalition, and imprisoned
on the island of Elba. Ihe final battle
occurred Mowing his escape, when a
revived French army was defeated ol
Wotetloo, in Belgium, on 1! June 1815.
From 1 793 onwards Ihe rulers of the
European slates loaned various alliances in
on attempt to counter the threat Eram
Fiance. Britain was a common member, with
other countries joining when il became
expedient lo da so. Russia oka |oind all
five coalitions, although (ram 1 807 In 1 81
it was allied to France. Spain, a member ol
ihe First Coalition, became a French ally and
then puppet stole from 17% until Ihe
Spanish people rose up in protest in 1 808
and precipitated the Peninsular War.
© REVOLUTION AND STABILITY IN EUROPE 1600-1785 pages 156-57 O REVOLUTION AND REACTION IN EUROPE 1815^9 pages 172-73
167
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN
1750-1850
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▲ In 1 750 most English people lived in the
countryside but many worked in the
well-established local industries us well as
on the land. The largest centre of
manufacturing was London, whose products
included silk, gin, soap, glass and furniture.
Its population had increased from an
estimated 1 20,000 to 675,000 between
1550 and 1750, and the resultant demand
encouraged developments in agriculture,
industry and transport. Around 650,000
tonnes of coal was shipped to London from
Newcastle each year - a trade that
employed 15,000 people by 1750.
1 Percentage of land enclosed in
England 1500-1914
A In 1 760, 75 per cent of the agricultural
land in England was already enclosed and
agricultural productivity had been improving
for 200 years.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries Britain became
the world's leading industrial nation in a process of
economic growth and change that is regarded as the
world's first industrial revolution. In some respects,
however, the process was of an evolutionary nature, with
change occurring at different speeds in different sectors of
the economy.
There were a number of reasons why the process of
industrialization first occurred in Britain rather than any
other country in Europe. In 1750 Britain had a well-devel-
oped and specialized economy, substantial overseas trade
and an average per capita national income that was one of
the highest in Europe. Domestic textile industries, iron
smelting and the manufacturing of iron goods were well-
established (map 1). The country was also fortunate in its
natural resources, among them fertile land on which a pro-
ductive agricultural sector had been able to develop. Early
enclosure of fields (bar chart 1), together with crop
improvements and livestock breeding, meant that British
agriculture could feed a rapidly increasing urban work-
force. Supplies of coal - fundamental to the nature of
Britain's industrialization - were widespread and plentiful,
and the development of a national market in coal was faci-
litated by coastal trade. Navigable rivers provided initial
internal transport, while faster-flowing rivers supplied
water power for industry and corn-milling.
The British government also played a very important
role in establishing the conditions under which industry
could thrive. Britain was free from the internal customs
barriers and river tolls which stifled trade in Europe, while
laws protected the textile and iron industries from foreign
competition. Private property rights and a stable currency
stimulated economic development, as did the stability pro-
vided by a strong state in which warfare, taxation and the
public debt were managed by sophisticated bureaucracies.
Shipping and trade were protected by Britain's naval
supremacy, which also helped to secure trading privileges
and build up a worldwide colonial empire obliged to
conduct trade using British ships.
Rapid economic progress was further encouraged by
Britain's success in war, in particular the war of 1793-1815
against France (pages 166-67), during which Britain
remained free from invasion and escaped the economic
dislocation engendered by war on the continent of Europe.
The war created a demand for armaments, ships and
uniforms, which in turn stimulated Britain's shipbuilding,
iron-smelting, engineering and textile industries.
The textile industry
In 1750 a variety of textiles - silk, linen, fustian (a mixture
of linen and cotton) and, in particular, wool - had long
been produced in Britain. The West Riding of Yorkshire,
the West Country and East Anglia were centres of the
woollen industry, while the fustian industry had developed
in Lancashire (map 1). The skilled workforce employed in
both industries was largely home-based and organized by
merchants who thus built up capital and entrepreneurial
skills. Such skills were used to great effect in the second
half of the 18th century, when the cotton industry devel-
oped rapidly. Technological change allowed Lancashire to
produce and sell cotton cloth more cheaply than India,
where production depended on low-paid labour. Inventions
such as Arkwright's water frame and Watt's steam-powered
rotative engine transformed cotton spinning in the last
decade of the 18th century into a factory-based, urban
industry. This led to an unprecedented rise in productiv-
ity and production. Lancashire became the centre of the
world's cotton manufacturing industry (map 2) and
exported cotton cloth throughout the world. The woollen
industry continued to be of importance, especially in the
West Riding of Yorkshire, where mechanization was intro-
duced and British wool was supplemented by merino wool
imported from Australia.
Iron, coal and transport
Innovation in iron production in the 18th century facili-
tated smelting, and later refining, using coke instead of
charcoal. Steam power, fuelled by plentiful coal supplies,
began to replace man, horse and water power, encouraging
the development of the factory system and rapid urbaniza-
tion near to coalfields. These developments were self-
sustaining, for while steam engines increased the demand
for coal and iron, better steam-driven pumps and rotary
winding equipment facilitated deeper coalmines.
Transport developed in response to the economic
changes. Canals were constructed to carry heavy and bulky
goods, and roads were improved by turnpike trusts,
opening up the national market for goods. The combina-
tion of colliery waggonways and the steam engine led to
the piecemeal development of a rail network from 1825
onwards which by 1850 linked the major urban centres. It
also encouraged further industrialization by generating a
huge fresh demand for coal, iron, steel, engineering and
investment (map 3).
The consequences of the Industrial Revolution
The economic and social effects of industrialization were
complex and wide-ranging. Between 1750 and 1850 the
population of England almost trebled. By 1850 more than
half the population lived in towns or cities, compared with
only 25 per cent in 1800 (bar chart 2). Eleven per cent
lived in London, which remained the largest manufacturing
centre, and more than 60 towns and cities had over 20,000
inhabitants. Such a process of rapid urbanization was
unprecedented and unplanned. Crowded and insanitary
living conditions meant that urban death rates were con-
siderably higher than those in rural areas. At the same
time, the development of the factory system generated
issues of discipline, as some workers resented capitalist
control of work processes and the replacement of tradi-
tional skills by machines. There were outbreaks of machine
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
N or ih
mi tyre
2 The conw tutile industry in Lancashire 1850
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breaking, especially in times of trade depression. Moral
debates were promoted by the employment of women and
children as cheap labour.
Even as late as 1850, however, when British manufac-
tured goods were trailed all over the world, many areas of
Britain remained rural. In some regions industries had
actually declined, among them wool production in the West
Country and iron manufacture around Ironhridge (maps 1
and J). The vast majority of the industrial working popu-
lation was employed in retailing and warehousing,
workshops and small enterprises rather than in factories.
Capital and technology had become less involved with
agriculture and more involved with industry, especially
manufacturing, and with trade and construction related to
industry. Vet agriculture was still the largest single occupa-
tion and most of Britain's food was still home- prod need.
By 1850 Britain was no longer the only country to have
undergone an industrial revolution. Similar changes had
begun to occur in continental Europe [pages 170-71),
sometimes with the aid of British machinery, entrepre-
neurial and financial skills. British industrial workers had
also taken their skills to the Continent. In the second half
of the century a considerable number were to emigrate to
the United States, where the process of industrialization
i/joge.s IHfy-N7) was eventually to lead to Britain losing its
position as the world's greatest industrial power.
A Die (otlori mills ol lomosw-: are often
(egarded os being gl the renlre ol Britain's
industiiul revolution A king textile hadiliofi.
the availability of cool and the presence ol
1he port of Liverpool encouraged the cotton
industry, which in turn promoted commercial
ond lirmntiol institutions, Irooe, transport,
mineral eirnKtioti, engineering ond
uf hannotion. By 1 930 one third ol
Lancashire's population worked in around
1,000 (alton factories ond numerous
small workshops.
■4 In 1950 London, wiih a population ol
2.4 million, wot still Ihe ptedominanl
manufacturing centre in Britain, london's
brewing and refining industries in particular
were among the largest in ihe country, and
mora 'onnog t passed through the pari of
London than any other poll in Britoin.
However, by 1850 the loslestgrowing cities
were the northern industrial centres of
Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds
and Sheffield.
2 ESTIMATED POPULATION OF ENGLAND
1750-1851
•^B Suipi population §
I 1 Uibon popLtatoi 1 G5 j§
pctHtiOga d! total
Wl
s
i
A As the popukjlion ol tnglond increased,
its geogrophkol distiibulion shifted in favour
of the developing industrial regions. In 1 750
Middlesex. loncoshiie. ihe West Riding and
Devon, ihe most populated counties, shared
10 per rent of the toloJ Engfeb population.
Ely 1851 ihe four most industriuliced
counties - Lancashire, West Riding,
Staffordshire and Warwickshire - contained
nearly a quarter ol the English papulation
© SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE 1500-1770 pages 134-35 O THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF EUROPE 1830-1914 pages 1 70-71
THE INDUSTRIALIZATION OF EUROPE
1830-1914
▲ By the outbreak of the First World War
Germany's industrial development had
outstripped that of all other European
countries, giving it on economic and
political confidence which is reflected
in this striking advertisement of 1 914.
► The development of the European rail
network followed the 1 9th-century pattern
of industrialization, starting in northern
France, Belgium, the Netherlands and
northern Germany, and spreading to Spam,
Italy and Austria-Hungary as the century
progressed. The availability of resources
such as cool and iron ore largely determined
the sites for the development of new heavy
industries, but elsewhere long-standing
home-based manufacture of textiles was
transformed into factory-based
manufacture, by the use water-power if
coal was not readily available.
The industrialization of Europe is considered to have
started in the 1830s, some decades after the begin-
ning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the late
18th century. Much debate has centred on whether British
industrialization "spilled over" into Europe (and if so, to
what extent), or whether European countries accumulated
their own technological and manufacturing knowledge.
There is no question that there were substantial flows of
skilled labour, entrepreneurs, capital and technology from
Britain, and later from France and Germany, to the less
industrialized parts of Europe. However, although the basic
model of industrialization remained British, each country
developed its own national characteristics. Substitutes were
found for the particular resources that Britain possessed but
which other countries lacked, more organized banking
systems supplied finance to accelerate growth, and more
aware governments supplied the ideologies and incentives
to motivate growth. As a result, industrialization in the
countries of continental Europe was more state-driven and
more revolutionary in character than in Britain. The cul-
mination of this model was the abrupt industrialization of
the USSR under the Soviet system from 1917 onwards.
Regional development
In the first half of the 19th century many of Europe's
modern nation-states were yet to come into existence.
Germany and Italy were still fragmented into small political
entities, while at the other extreme lay dynastic empires
that spanned several nationalities, such as the Habsburg
Austrian Empire, the tsarist Russian Empire (which
included Poland), and the Ottoman Empire (which included
much of the Balkans). The process of industrialization often
took place in the context of shifting political allegiances and
the forging of national identities. Political alliances and wars,
such as the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, introduced
border changes that were often somewhat haphazard in eco-
nomic terms. On the other hand, some of the German states
used economic unification - initially in the form of a
customs union (Zollverein) in 1834 - as a step towards polit-
ical union in 1871 (pages 176-77).
Industry in its early stages was predominantly confined
to a number of rather circumscribed regions. Some, such as
the region just west of Krakow and a large area of northern
Europe, cut across national boundaries (map 1). The exis-
tence of coal and iron was the most important criterion for
determining the speed at which regions developed, but
locally available resources were also important, especially
the supply of skills in textile regions. Some of the emerging
industrial regions subsequently faded, such as the areas
around Le Havre, Leipzig and Dresden, while some new
ones emerged, such as that bordering the Ruhr in Germany.
In general, industrialization can be said to have come to
1 The growth of
INDUSTRY AND HUUMtt
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
regions rather than to nations. Even at the beginning of the
21st century, much industrial activity in Europe is domi-
nated by regional "clusters" of activity, rather than by a
general spread of industrialization to all corners.
Development of industry
The pattern of European industrialization (starting in
northwest Europe and moving northwards, southwards and
eastwards) tends to support the idea that it was based on
that of Britain. It is certainly beyond doubt that the tech-
nological advances developed in Britain, for example in
textile machinery and steam engines, did not need to be re-
invented. However, the technology often needed to be
modified to suit local conditions. For example, the type of
steam engine most popular in Britain (developed by James
Watt) consumed too much coal for its use to be worthwhile
in regions where coal was more expensive than in Britain.
As a result, water-wheels and the more efficient water tur-
bines were often used to power machinery in France and
Italy. Similarly, in the textile industry it was found that
machinery developed for the manufacture of woollen and
cotton cloth in Britain was not as suitable for the finer tex-
tiles of France and Spain.
The scattering of industrial areas encouraged the growth
of railway systems, to facilitate the delivery of raw materi-
als to manufacturers and the distribution of manufactured
goods to customers. The first track was laid in northern
Europe in the 1840s, and the network had reached all
corners of Europe by 1870 (map 1 ). In countries such as
Spain and Italy the railway was envisaged as the catalyst
that would set in motion the process of industrialization,
but in these countries, which were among the last to indus-
trialize, the building of railway lines had little appreciable
effect. In general, railways were successful at connecting
already industrializing areas, rather than fostering the
growth of new areas.
The speed and impact of industrialization
The impact of new industries and new technologies can be
gauged from the levels of industrialization achieved, mea-
sured in terms of the volume of industrial production per
person (maps 2 and 3). In 1830 the figure for Britain was
more than twice as high as in any other European nation
except Belgium, and even as late as 1913 Britain remained
ahead, although it was rapidly being caught by Switzerland,
Belgium and, of course, Germany, whose steel production
had by this time outstripped that of Britain (pages 216-1 7).
Indeed, while Britain had a 13.6 per cent share of the world
industrial output in 1913, Germany, with its much larger
population, had 14.8 per cent, and was thus second only to
the United States in terms of its industrial might.
The most obvious effect of industrialization was on eco-
nomic growth and on the living standards of the populations
of the industrialized countries. While industrialization had
developed first in countries whose societies were relatively
▼ The degree of industrialization in Europe The Scandinavian countries of Norway,
is clearly reflected in the growth of
countries' Gross National Product (GNP).
The nations of northern Europe (including
Denmark) pulled away from the rest of
Europe in terms of their national wealth.
Sweden and Finland all had a lower GNP
per capita than those of southern Europe in
1 830, but had outstripped them by 1 91 as
a consequence of a period of intense
industrialization late in the 19th century.
fifUKVE growth IN GNP PK CAPITA across Europe 1 830-1 9 1
[atari fiMpe
* v
■*-?. '-,.1
• .•-.,■;■;*>
2 The level of industrialization 1 860
1
BoundoiiH Level jl indusinal uuipuf per mpifu
Increase lit It*-: of indifitjid
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O H-lOfft
C3 14-30
• aw lOtfi
egalitarian, such as Belgium and France, it often had the
effect of widening social inequalities for some years. The
national income per head, the most common indicator of
overall prosperity and growth, rose throughout Europe
(graph), but its steepest increase was in northern Europe,
where industrialization took its strongest hold. So, despite
the squalor and misery of industrial regions and cities, it
seems that industrializing nations as a whole, and certain
sectors in particular, enjoyed long-term economic benefits.
-4 Britain, with its head start, steamed
ahead of the rest of Europe in terms of
industrial output per capita in the first half
of the 1 9th century, but Belgium, with
readily available sources of coal and iron
ore, also experienced an increase in output
of more than 1 00 per cent. Elsewhere in
northern Europe, and in Switzerland,
industrialization made considerable
headway, although the intense
industrialization of northern France and
Germany is not reflected in the per capita
figures of those countries, since the majority
of the population was still engaged in
agricultural production.
T Countries underwent their main periods
of industrialization at different times.
Belgium experienced a spurt early on and
then again at the turn of the century while
others, in particular the Scandinavian
countries, were relatively late developers.
Germany also started comparatively slowly
but increased the volume of its industrial
production per person by 240 per cent
between 1880 and 1913.
I S30
I8S0
■!,'0
IBM
1910
© THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN 1750-1850 pages 168-69 O THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1870-1914 pages 216-17
REVOLUTION AND REACTION IN EUROPE
1815-49
*■ Hie Congress ol Yienno resulted in
several moior boundary ihonges. fiance
had its borders relumed la those of 1 N7.
Poland was divided once again and 39
German .spooking states were organized into
the German Confederation, dominated by
Prussia, which was given horf o( Soxorty-
Austria last its possessions in northwest
Europe la the Dutch in the newly created
United Netherlands, but was given much af
norihem Italy by way of compensation.
SWEDEN
*&s&i$>-
V During the 1 82tK and early 1 83Ds
rebellions broke oui across Europe, with
liberals colling for on end lo obwlme
monarchy in Spain and Portugal ond in Ihe
Italian peninsula. Ik Greeks, with the help
of the French, Btilisti and Russians, drove
the Ottomans horn Uorea. The Hussions also
mtefvened lo (rush rebellion in Poland in
1830, having defeated their own Detembrtsl
Revolution in 1 815. The Frenth brought
about o degree of canstitutioml reform
[allowing the replacement af Choi Its I by
Louk FMjppt in 1830, and Belgium
achieved independence leant the United
Netherlands the some year.
f r? a ,. " At ^ N
^J
1 Hurt snnEMErm <n Europe 1814-15
^j taeattxporson
| SmndOmtritf luHrrocujIBIS
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JfoojKcot&oW«l81i-4i
^H ItateJNtAetands 1311-30
n SwmrtnJ 1815
Following their initial victory over Napoleon in iy 14,
the major European powers met at the Congress of
Vienna (IN 14- 15) to decide on the future political
map of Europe. The Congress was dominated hy three prin-
ciples: territorial compensation for the victors, the
restoration ami affirmation of thu ruling royal dynasties, and
the achievement of a balance of power between the major
European states. As a result of their deliberations the
Cerman Confederation was formed, replacing the Holy
Roman Empire (map J). Elsewhere, national boundaries
were redrawn, often with little regard to ethnic groupings,
thus planting (he seeds of nationalist tensions.
There was a shared conviction that the spread of repub-
lican atvd revolutionary movements must Ik; prevented. In
September 1M5 Russia, Austria and Prussia formed a "Holy
Alliance", agreeing to guarantee all existing boundaries and
governments and to uphold the principles of Christianity
throughout Europe. The alliance was subsequently joined
by the other major European powers - with the exception of
Britain, the I'ope and, not surprisingly, the Ottoman sultan
- and over the next 41) years there were several occasions
when the autocratic rulers of Europe took military action to
suppress uprisings in states other than their own.
Kr.vni.i ntivun tmvm in tiik stnxii
In 1820 there was tin explosion of revolutionary activity In
Spain. Following the defeat of Napoleon, a liberal consti-
tution had been introduced in 1812, hut this had been
annulled hy King Ferdinand VII on his return from exile in
I Si 5. In 1820 his authority was challenged by an army
revolt, supported hy riots across Spain (map 2), with the
result that the liberal constitution was re-established.
„ 3fr*
s
^•o
>°
- ■'•
A iN
v^
Y
\v
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M * '
^ KINGDOM '* W '
Of THE TWO
. , SICILIES
" " • *%$?•
r * Sicily Js20
*
— tg?7-29
*%w
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
Insurrections in Naples, Piedmont and Portugal in the
summer of 1820 also attempted to introduce constitutional
forms of government, and initially met with some success.
However, Tsar Alexander I of Russia persuaded the
Austrians and Prussians to support him in threatening mil-
itary intervention, and in March 1821 Austria sent an army
to crush the revolts in Piedmont and Naples. In December
1825 Russia faced revolutionary action on its own soil when
a group of military officers tried unsuccessfully to prevent
the accession to the tsardom of Nicholas I, preferring his
more liberal-minded brother. The following year the con-
tinuing instability in Portugal prompted the British to
intervene, in this instance with the intention of aiding the
preservation of its constitutional government.
In Greece a revolution broke out in 1821 with the aim of
shaking off Ottoman rule and uniting the whole of the
ancient Hellenic state under a liberal constitution. The
Ottomans enlisted support from the Egyptian viceroy
Muhammad Ali, whose troops seized a large area of the
country by 1826, when Russia, France and Britain inter-
vened to defeat the Muslim forces. However, the London
Protocol of 1830, which proclaimed Greek independence,
fell far short of the aspirations of the revolutionaries in that
it only established a Greek monarchy in southern Greece,
under the joint protection of the European powers (map 3).
Unrest in the north
By 1830 revolutionary passions were rising in France. King
Charles X dissolved an unco-operative Chamber of Deputies
and called an election, but when an equally anti-royal
Chamber resulted, he called fresh elections with a restricted
electorate. Demonstrations in Paris during July forced him
to abdicate in favour of Louis Philippe, whose right to call
elections was removed. His reign, known as the "July
Monarchy", saw insurrections as industrial workers and
members of the lower middle class, influenced by socialist
and Utopian ideas, demanded an increased share of politi-
cal power, including the vote.
Nationalist resentment at decisions taken at the
Congress of Vienna led to insurrection in both Belgium and
Poland in the 1830s. In Belgium, which had been given to
the United Netherlands in 1815, riots broke out in 1830 and
independence was declared in October. In the kingdom of
Poland, an area around Warsaw that had been given to the
Russian tsar, a revolt by Polish nationalists resulted in a
brief period of independence before the Russians crushed
the movement in 1831, and subsequently attempted to
destroy Polish identity in a campaign of "Russification".
Britain also experienced a degree of social unrest. A
mass protest in Manchester in 1819 was crushed and 11
people were killed by troops in what became known as the
"Peterloo Massacre". Inequalities in the electoral system
provoked a strong movement for reform, which resulted in
the Great Reform Bill of 1832. This expanded the electorate
by 50 per cent and ensured representation from the newly
developed industrial centres. Further calls were made by the
Chartists for universal suffrage, with petitions presented to
Parliament in 1838 and again in 1848.
The revolutions of 1848
By 1848 many of the European countries were suffering
from an economic crisis; the failure of the potato and grain
crops in 1845-46 was reflected in the price of food. There
was political discontent at different social levels: peasants
demanded total abolition of the feudal system, industrial
workers sought improvements in their working conditions,
and middle-class professionals wanted increased political
rights. In Italy and Germany there were growing movements
for unification and independence (pages 176-77).
Revolutionary agitation began in Paris in February 1848,
forcing the abdication of Louis Philippe and the establish-
ment of the Second Republic. It then spread across central
Europe (map 3). The Habsburg Empire, faced with demands
for a separate Hungarian government, as well as demon-
strations on the streets of Vienna, initially gave in to the
— ■ —
3 CENTRES OF REVOLUTION 1848-49
■ BanJGf nf Gannon CMifwfaratKn
4 [wine of njrcfcfan
RWa
SWEDEN
G*
demands of the Hungarian nationalists and granted them a
separate constitution. This, however, was annulled some
months later, leading to a declaration of independence by
Hungary. The Austrian response was to quell the revolt in
1849 with the help of Russian forces (pages 174-75).
Discontent in Austria spilled over into the southern
states of the German Confederation, and liberals in Berlin
demanded a more constitutional government. As a result,
the first National Parliament of the German Confederation
was summoned in May 1848.
From revolution to reaction
In June 1848 struggles between the moderate and the
radical republicans culminated in three days of rioting on
the streets of Paris. In crushing the rioters the more con-
servative factions gained control, a trend that was repeated
in Prussia, where royal power was reaffirmed. The second
half of 1848 was marked by waves of reaction that spread
from one city to another. The restoration of Austrian control
over Hungary was achieved partly by playing off against
each other the different ethnic groups within the empire.
However, despite the suppression of the 1848 revolu-
tionaries, most of the reforms they had proposed were
carried out in the second half of the century, and at least
some of the nationalist movements were successful.
▲ Rebellions broke out across Europe
during 1 848, inspired by the success of the
French in abolishing their monarchy in
February. The Habsburgs laced rebellions in
Hungary and in the Italian cities of Milan
and Venice, which were supported by
Piedmont. Although the revolutions in Italy
Germany and Hungary were all defeated,
the liberal constitutions, unification and
independence they were seeking did
eventually come about.
© REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 1789-1815 pages 166-67 © THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND OF GERMANY 1815-71 pages 176-77
THE HABSBURG EMPIRE:
EXPANSION AND DECLINE 1700-1918
► During the IBlh century the ttabsburg
Empire look every opportunity to expond
its territory oi fhe expense of its
neighbours. As a result ol the War ol the
Spanish Succession, the Hohburgs goined
territory in the Netherlands and Holy.
They fared less well in the east, however,
where territory laken troai the Ottoman
Empire in 171 S was regained by the
Jin UN.
*'-»%
^"Sw, '
1 TERRBITOftlAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
17Q0-1S1*
*"^| Austran htabsburg tefriloras 1700
CwirrotrianifltftieHkitfitxifgFmpHelfitO
lentQiy acquired by Amnion HolKburgs.
j Sporash Bourtwn \m\vrf\frw 1714
j | m Phu nr Ulfeeehl 171 3/T4
Spvriili Titos of Succession 1701 -1 4
J 1710-50
• Anglfr-ftinh-AuiiiSan htflbsburfl vkiory
Ljira?
9 f rendr^mrion wigy
| 1 1772-1305.
▲ During her 40-year reign Empress Maria
Theresa centralized control of the Habsburg
territories through improved administrative
systems, and won popular support with her
social reforms.
The Spanish Habsburg dynasty ended in 1700 with the
death of Charles II. King Louis XIV of France
supported the claim to the Spanish throne of Philip,
Duke of Anjou, who was his infant grandson and the great-
nephew of Charles. The British and Dutch, fearing French
domination, supported the claim of the Austrian Archduke
Charles, and the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14)
ensued (map 1). The outcome, formalized in the Peace of
Utrecht (1713/14), was a compromise under which Philip
attained the Spanish throne on condition that he renounced
any claim to France, and the Austrians gained control of ter-
ritory in Italy and the Netherlands.
During the 18th century the Austrian Habsburgs were
the major dynastic power in central Europe. They were
threatened, however, when on the death of Charles VI of
Austria in 1740 other crowned heads of Europe refused to
recognize his daughter Maria Theresa as his successor. In
the resulting War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48),
Bavaria, France, Spain, Sardinia, Prussia and Saxony joined
forces against Austria, the Netherlands and Britain in an
unsuccessful attempt to oust Maria Theresa.
Reform of the monarchy
During her long reign (1740-80) Maria Theresa embarked
on transforming the diverse Habsburg dominions into a cen-
tralized nation state, and initiated many progressive reforms
in the spheres of education, law and the Church. Her min-
ister, Hagwitz, put the Habsburg finances on a more stable
footing, and these reforms reduced the rivalry between
ethnic Germans and Czechs. When Joseph II succeeded his
mother in 1780, he was able to build on her centralizing
policies, and although his most radical reform - that of the
tax system - was abolished by his successor, Leopold II,
before it was given a chance to work, Joseph is generally
considered to have been a strong and enlightened monarch.
In the years immediately after the French Revolution of
1789, and during the period of Napoleon's leadership, the
Habsburg Empire became involved in a succession of wars
against France (pages 166-67), as a result of which it
temporarily lost much of Austria, as well as territories in
northern Italy and along the Adriatic. Under the peace
settlement negotiated at the Congress of Vienna in 1815,
the Habsburgs renounced their claim to the Netherlands in
exchange for areas in northern Italy (map 2),
Austria was by this time largely under the control of
Foreign Minister Metternich, who used his influence to per-
suade the other major European powers to assist Austria in
crushing revolts in Spain, Naples and Piedmont. His own
methods involved the limited use of secret police and the
partial censorship of universities and freemasons.
The revolutions of 1848-49
The years 1848 and 1849 saw a succession of largely unsuc-
cessful uprisings against the absolutist rule of the Habsburg
monarchy (pages 172-73). Although reforms of the legal
and administrative systems (known as the "April Laws")
were set to take effect in Hungary later that year, they did
not apply to the rest of the Habsburg territories.
The unrest started in Vienna in March 1848 (as a result
of which Metternich was dismissed) and spread to Prague,
Venice and Milan. A Constituent Assembly was summoned
to revise the constitution, but its only lasting action was to
abolish serfdom. By the autumn the unrest had reached
Hungary as a number of ethnic groups within the empire
(map 3) made bids for greater national rights and freedoms.
In December the ineffectual Ferdinand I abdicated in favour
of his nephew, Francis Joseph. Not feeling bound by the
April Laws, Francis Joseph annulled the Hungarian consti-
tution, causing the Hungarian leader Louis Kossuth to
declare a republic. With the help of the Russians (who
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
feared the spread of revolutionary fervour), and the Serbs,
Groats and Romanians (who all feared Hungarian domina-
tion), the Austrian army succeeded in crushing the revolt
in 1849 (map 4).
From 1849 onwards an even more strongly centralized
system of government was established. Trade and commerce
were encouraged by fiscal reforms, and the railway network
expanded. Coupled with peasant emancipation - for which
landowners had been partially compensated by the govern-
ment - these measures led to a trebling of the national debt
over ten years. Higher taxes and a national loan raised from
wealthier citizens led to discontent among the Hungarian
nobles, who wished to see the restoration of the April Laws.
In 1859 war in the Italian provinces forced the Austrians to
cede Lombardy (map 2).
Crisis and change
Several factors combined in the 1860s to create a period of
crisis for the Habsburg Empire. It was becoming clear that
Prussia, under Bismarck, presented an increasing threat, but
Austria was unable to keep pace with military developments
because of the insistence of the international banks that it
balance its budget. Unrest in Hungary was presenting a
threat to the monarchy, and also making it difficult to
collect taxes and recruit for the army. A centralized gov-
ernment was unacceptable to the Hungarian nobility, but
provincial government would be unworkable because of
ethnic conflict. Austria was forced to reach a constitutional
settlement with Hungary in 1867, forming the Dual
Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Although Francis Joseph was
crowned head of both, and there were joint ministries for
finance, foreign policy and military affairs, each nation had
an independent constitution and legislature.
Encouraged by the constitutional change of 1867, many
of the ethnic groups within the Dual Monarchy became
increasingly vocal in their demands for the right to promote
their language and culture, if not for outright autonomy. In
Hungary, although other languages were not actually
repressed, a knowledge of Hungarian was necessary for
anyone with middle-class aspirations. Croatia was granted
partial autonomy within Hungary in 1878, but continued to
be dominated by its larger partner. There were also
demands for greater autonomy from the Czechs in Austria,
which were resisted by the German-speaking majority.
T Throughout the 1 9th century the ethnic
minorities within the Habsburg, and
subsequently the Austro-Hungarian, Empire
did not generally seek independence.
Instead they sought to gain greater local
autonomy within a reformed monarchy.
3 Nationalities in Austria- Hungary 1 900
Ethnic background of raiairy of papulation !i.;i..:nMiv
| Croat '"i;i)i' ~2 Sort ofAusfno-
■i tan I I Wo | SIokA Hungary
31 German | tomrniui f 51mm bgiwtai Austria 1
[] Won | | turharuan frfrfl (qwl Crinf/Sab inrt Hungorf
2 Habsburg territories 181 4
I Hahsbuq lerrrrories 8814
| Tsritary legomed hy Hrisbirrrp folkumg CnngrKt of YkjnflQ 1815
] AcrjuiiHiMis 18IS-1914
ftaunaory of Kingdom of Hungary 1667
AusrrcrHuiigorion Empire 19H
\l&4?\ DoNtwrtart ■"Ni'n.'v lost bv Hcfeburr^
The rise of Serb nationalism
Bosnia, predominantly inhabited by impoverished peasants,
was administered by the Austro-Hungarian Empire under
terms agreed at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. It was
annexed in 1908 in order to protect Habsburg trade routes
to and from the Dalmatian coast. The resulting incorpora-
tion of a large number of Serbs into the empire was actively
opposed by Serbian nationalists and was to contribute to the
outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Following the
defeat of the Austro-Hungarians in the war, the Treaty of
Saint-Germain (1919) broke up the empire, granting auton-
omy to its constituent nations and reducing Austria and
Hungary to less than a quarter of their former area.
4 Revolution in the Austrian Empire 1848 -49
^J Awrnan Empire Milflray campaign of:
Bcnmbry of Hungay Crogfc IcHB
9 t»irre of rpcAitarc — > Amtnans I W
^ taint win doe — »• rtekmslM)
OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
▲ In 1815 the Austrian Habsburgs
regained territory they had gained and
then lost during the Napoleonic Wars.
However, they were forced to give it up in
the mid-1 9th century during the process of
Italian unification, and in 1 867 were
persuaded to grant Hungary equal status to
that of Austria.
-4 The unrest in Hungary in 1 848 and
1 849 was largely an expression of Magyar
nationalism, and as such was opposed by
those from minority ethnic groups, in
particular the Croats. In 1 849, with Louis
Kossuth appointed president of an
independent republic of Hungary, the
Austrians accepted Russian assistance,
offered in the spirit of the Holy Alliance, and
the rebels were eventually crushed at the
Battle of Tim'isoara.
© THE HABSBURG EMPIRE 1490-1700 pages 152-53 © THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1871-1914 pages 216-1 7
THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND OF
GERMANY 1815-71
2 The unification of Itaiy
1859-70
] Kington of SmSnii
| tried by »utWl 185?
| Ceded «& Frnnte 1 R60
~\ UmslwiitpBimitltM
1 CisWbytaninlSii
3]l)»ip«l!nli«lylS!n
1861 fttfa ur wiilcii rllns become
nininl n( inlv
— «■ EjpeoliiiratlfcgMiilesetBiu
— *■ touted Gonlnldi'E, riwuMind !8tD
^\ BoHe wMictotB
A In 185!, roltowing a w<3( waged by
Piedmont and Frame against Ins Austrian
Habsburgs, Lombardy was liberated Fran]
Austrian rule. The autfxrahc rulers ci
Florence, Parma and Modefla were oko
overthrown and provisional governments sol
up under Predmonfese oulhority. France was
granted Savoy and Nice by Piedmont
In Hay 18(1 Garibaldi answered requests
lor support from Sicilian revolutionaries and
landed an army in weslern Sicily. He
proceeded lo rout the Neapolitan army in a
series of bottles and la proclaim himself
ruler of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The
Piedmonlese, anxious to unify the whole of
Italy, despalched on army southwards lo
lake the Fapal Slates, and Garibaldi was
persuaded to band aver his authority in ihe
saulh lo King Victor Emmanuel II.
Venelia was ceded by Auslrio to Italy,
following Austria's defeat of I B 66 a I the
bands af the Prussians, whom Italy hod
supported. Rome oral its surrounding
territory *os seiied by llaty in 1 870.
Among the most important developments in 19th-
century Europe was the unification of Italy and
Germany as nation-states — a process that funda-
mentally altered the balance of power in the continent.
Although nationalist feeling had been stimulated by the
French Revolution of 1789, and was originally associated
with liberal ideas, unification was actually the result of
diplomacy, war and the efforts of conservative elites rather
than of popular action. German unification was promoted
by Prussia, the most powerful German state, in order co
protect its own domestic political stability; in Italy,
Piedmont played this role for similar reasons.
Ait emits to lmfv Italy
The Napoleonic Wars (prices Jf>6-67) had a dramatic effect
on Italy. Napoleon redrew boundaries and introduced
French political and legal ideas. At the Congress of Vienna
in 1814-15 the major European powers attempted to
reverse these changes by restoring deposed leaders, includ-
ing members of the [labsburg dynasty, and giving
conservative Austria effective control of l.ombardy and
Venetia in northern Italy Imci/; J J. These developments
were a major setback for Italian nationalists, who sought to
remove foreign interference and unite I tab'. The movement
for national unification, or Risorgimentn, continued togmw,
despite the suppression of revolts in the 1820s and early
18,10s [pages 172-73). A major figure in this movement was
A The Congress ol Vienna m 1814-15
lestored boundaries within Italy thai had
been last under Napoleon's rule. It also
restored members ol the conservative
Auslrion Hnbsburg dynasty lo power in
Modem, Parma and Tuscany.
the idealist (iinseppe Mazzlni, who horded the people would
overthrow their existing rulers, both Italian and foreign.
In 1848 a wave of revolutionary fervour swept the cities
of Europe - including those in Italy, where the rebels
attempted to dispense with Austrian domination and to per-
suade local rulers to introduce constitutions. King Charles
Albert of the kingdom of Sardinia hoped to defuse the revo-
lutions by expelling the Austrians from Lombardy and
Venetia, hue military defeats at Custoz/a and S'ovara forced
him to abdicate in 184'.* in favour of his son Victor
Emmanuel 11. In Rome, Venie-e and Florence republics were
briefly established, but France intervened to restore Pope
Pius IX to power and the Austrians reconquered Lombardy
and restored the conservative rulers of central Italy.
The rise of Piedmont
Moderate nationalists concluded that the best hope for
Italian unification lay with Piedmont, which was economi-
cally advanced and had introduced a relatively liberal
constitution. The Piedmontese prime minister, Count
Camillo di Cavour, hud already decided that foreign help
would be needed to remove Austrian influence and achieve
unification, and reached a secret agreement with Napoleon
111 of France at Plombieres in 1858. Accordingly, when
Cavour embarked on a war with Austria in 18S'J France sup-
ported him; Austria was defeated and forced to cede
Lombardy to Piedmont (map 2).
Piedmont's subsequent role in uniting Italy was partly a
response to the actions of Giuseppe Garibaldi, one of the
radicals who had created the Roman Republic in 1 848. In
1860 Garibaldi led an expedition of republican "Red Shirts"
(also known as Garibaldi's Thousand) through the Kingdom
of the Two Sicilies, w-hose conservative ruler he defeated
(mop J I, Piedmont, anxious to preserve its constitutional
monarchy, sent a force to annex the Papal States. Garibaldi
then transferred the territory he had conquered to the
Piedmontese king, who liecame head of the unified kingdom
of Italy proclaimed in 1861. The remaining territories of
Venetia and the Patrimony of St Peter were annexed during
the subsequent ten years.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
The German Confederation
Before the Napoleonic Wars Germany consisted of over 300
states, loosely bound in the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806
Napoleon dissolved the empire, replacing it with a new
Confederation of the Rhine comprising states in southern
and western Germany, but excluding Austria and Prussia.
The Confederation became a French satellite; its constitu-
tion was modelled on that of France and it adopted the
Napoleonic legal code. It was dissolved after the defeat of
the French at the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 (pages 166-68).
The German Confederation, created as a result of the
Congress of Vienna in 1814-15, included 39 states, the
largest and most powerful being Austria and Prussia (map
3). A diet (parliament), presided over by Austria, was estab-
lished at Frankfurt, but plans to create a federal army and
achieve constitutional harmony among the states failed.
As in other parts of Europe, 1848 saw a wave of revolu-
tionary activity in Germany (pages 172-73). Following
unrest in Berlin, the Prussian king, Frederick William IV,
introduced constitutional reforms and seemed sympathetic
towards German unification. Middle-class German national-
ists established a parliament at Frankfurt which drew up a
constitution for a future German Empire. However, they
were divided over whether to pursue a "Greater Germany",
to include Catholic Austria, or a smaller grouping, dominated
by Protestant Prussia. The parliament fell apart in July 1849
and by the end of the year the old order had been restored in
both Germany and the Austrian Empire.
Although Austria and Prussia tried to co-operate during
the 1850s, Prussia was already outstripping Austria in eco-
nomic terms (pa^es 170-71). In 1834 Prussia had
established a Customs Union (Zollverein) that bound the
economies of the north German states closely, while exclud-
ing Austria (map 4). Industrialization made Prussia the
richest German state, and increased its military power rel-
ative to that of Austria.
T German unification can be seen as the
annexation by Prussia of the smaller states
of the Confederation. Following Prussia's
display of military strength in France in
1870-71 the southern states acceded to
Prussian demands for a unified Germany.
The expansion of Prussia
The leading role in German unification was played by Otto
von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor between 1862 and
1871. Bismarck, who had come to see Austrian and Prussian
interests as incompatible, sought to secure Prussian influ-
ence over northern and central Germany, and to weaken
Austria's position. He hoped that success in foreign affairs
would enable him to control Prussia's liberals. In 1864
Austria and Prussia jointly ousted Denmark from control of
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, but the two powers
increasingly competed for control of the German
Confederation. When Bismarck engineered a war with
Austria in 1866 (Seven Weeks War), most German states
supported Austria. Prussia, however, enjoyed advantages in
military technology and defeated Austria quickly, signalling
the end of the German Confederation and making German
unification under Prussian leadership more likely.
In 1867 Bismarck secured the creation of a North
German Confederation (map 4). Each member state
retained some autonomy, but the Prussian king, William I,
became the Confederation's president, responsible for
defence and foreign policy. Although the south German
states were apprehensive about Prussian domination,
Bismarck used their fear of the territorial ambitions of
Napoleon III of France to persuade them to ally with
Prussia. Bismarck needed to neutralize France if he was to
achieve German unification on his terms, and he therefore
provoked a war over the succession to the Spanish throne.
In the resulting Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) France was
decisively defeated, losing the largely German-speaking
areas of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia.
In January 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, the
German Empire was declared, merging the south German
states with the North German Confederation. The new
empire had a federal constitution, leaving each state with
some powers, but the Prussian king became emperor and
most government posts were put into Prussian hands. With
well-developed industrial regions in the north and east
(pages 170-71), a united Germany represented a powerful
new economic force in Europe.
▲ During 1870-71 the Prussians, under
Kaiser William I and Chancellor Bismarck,
defeated the French army and laid siege to
Paris. This display of strength convinced the
southern German states to join with the
North German Confederation in a unified
Germany - dominated by Prussia.
T The German Confederation was
established following the end of the
Napoleonic Wars in 1 81 5. It comprised 39
German-speaking states, by far the largest
of which was Prussia, and included states
under the control of the Habsburg Empire.
© REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE AND NAPOLEONIC EUROPE 1789-1815 pages 166-67 © THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1871-1914 pages 216-17
THE DECLINE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
1683-1923
T Between 1 6M and 1 739 the C
lost large ateos In the Balkans, although
ihoy regained the Morea horn Venke in
1 716 and Serbia and Wallnchio ha(n the
Austrian Habsburgsin 1739.
The decline of the ( iuoman Empire is often said to date
from the massive defeat of the Ottomans outside
Vienna in HjcS.!, hut despite the territorial losses
resulting from the subsequent Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699,
the 18th-century Ottoman state remained the biggest polit-
ical entity in Europe and western Asia (map I ). All hough the
effectiveness of the empire's prestige troops, the Janissaries,
was weakened by increasing internal unrest, ( )ttoman forces
were ahlc to hold Serbia. They also got the better of their old
Renaissance opponent. Venice, by recovering the Morea in
1718 (map 2).
During the 18th century the major European states
became more of a threat to the Ottomans. There were large-
scale Russian encroachments around the black Sea in the
Corfu .
>
tanian
$«a
yrwn i
ir"tsW*n«»
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2 Btntur IN TMf BlUUMs 1 699-1 739
femoral rotas infer tarty ol Xobwrrj 1 6W by:
I I lust™ \^\ Mono \ZH torn
territorial gains, under Troaty ci Passfliowrrr 1 718 by
^| tastrii 1 1 1 B | Republ« «f lagusn £ ^J uiromrji Emr*i
Teiritoriil gwrs unrfer Treaties of Etalcf adrj and ConsrantmnplB 1739 by
i Gnomon fmptrB I _J Russia
^j feniioiyaiUbf Onanore 173V
later part of the century, and in 1 798 a French army under
Napoleon Uonaparte made a devastating, if shortlived, sur-
prise attack on Egypt, the empire's richest Muslim province.
It was clear that the weaponry and the military capacity of
the European states were moving ahead of those of their
Islamic counterparts. At the same time, Europe's ideological
conflicts reverberated among the Ottoman Empire's
Christian subjects, encouraging bids for separatism and
liberty which usually had Russian backing. Whole commu-
nities in the Caucasus switched their allegiance from the
Ottoman land Persian) states to the Russian Empire, and
disaffection spread among the prosperous and previously
co-operative Greeks of the empire's heartlands. In 182 1 the
western Greeks struck out for independence, and by IS.^2
they had won a mini-state (mup J ).
Till: SLIE1E IJVTO I1KI'EM»K\CV
The ( (ttoman state responded to its losses with a programme
of expensive remilitarization, as well as political and eco-
nomic reform and development, funded precariously from
what were now seriously reduced revenues. The strategy tor
survival was to replace the empires traditional patchwork of
cultural and religinus communities with a new- model
Ottoman society in which there was one legal system, one
citizen status and one tax rating for all. This was progressive,
liberal 19th-century policy, but it attacked vested interests
in the provinces and among the Muslim clergy.
The reform movement engendered a limited revival of
international confidence in the Ottomans. During the
Crimean War of 1853-56. British and French armies fought
to defend Ottoman interests against Russian military escala-
tion in exchange for an Ottoman commitment to equality of
status for its Muslim and non-Muslim subjects. This was a deal
die < ktnman state was unable to honour; twemy years after
the Crimean campaign, the Ottoman authorities were still
employing ill-disciplined troops to contain unruly Balkan
Christians, provoking an international outcry and eventually
die resumption of full-scale war with Russia, Under the agree-
ment reached at die Congress of Berlin in 187S, the region's
political map was redrawn (maps 1 and J). "Turkey in
Europe" became a much-reduced presence.
T Hie Ottoman Empire reached its furthest
exleni in ihe mid-1 7ih century, but when its
troops failed to lake Vienna in 1 683
European powers look advantage of their
disarray and seized territory in [enlral
Europe, The subsequent dranlesrulmn of the
empire look plate over the item 240 years.
Ihe British took control of Egypt in 1 BB2.
and Ihe Middle Eastern lerritories were lost
as o result at an Arab uprising during the
Firsi World War.
ti°
►•#•;
SP
M»*
Ar*b
1710 / jf
t The decline of the Ottoman Empire 1 683
-1923
1 I unsss 1 683-V9 (trenty irt (orirwitfl
1 . I iffises 1830-78 (treaty ol Berlin;'
| 1 lusses 17W-1 B (Italy of fesarowM
| lasses 1879-191 5 (hahH grl London tnd Buchana)
3 losses 17I?-H I1r«rj,(»rkl!ii*]inffljl
[ '1 lasses l?l6-J)!taryo1 Larson™)
Z\ tos« l»5-18l?(Iwtv(il8trdinsil
■ bteyiiim
I Lews 1811-19/30 ttaiytfUanoli)
~H Ektenfoilshfe
| | lenwny toss n> tost* \lti-3t
138 r Darj or penad at Meni IT74 Deis nl ndipenderas
ATUS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
3 Retreat in the Caucasus 1 826 - 78
2 from PmmEmpre 1813/29
_J ton Oftmgn tnw «i (onMMn of Bismol 1826
^| inJuTngtyiVBokilOT
EZ3 Ttmtgiy dismied b» »usshi 1819-76
▲ Following Russia's defeat of the
Ottomans in 1 878, the Treaty of Berlin
awarded an area of the Caucasus to Russia.
This land was returned in 1 921 by Bolshevik
Russia to those fighting for the
establishment of the Turkish Republic .
The rise of the "Young Turks"
The new sultan, Abdul Hamid II, swiftly shelved the consti-
tution he had adopted as the price of survival in 1876. He
ruled in the tradition of the Ottoman dynasty - as a despot.
His empire had two faces: a westward-facing and cosmopoli-
tan Constantinople, run by European-educated officials who
might also be slave-owners, governing a society that faced
east. The empire's political geography was now predomi-
nantly Middle Eastern, and Abdul Hamid was keen to exploit
l, I ,. o li S i a
4 The birth of the Republic of Turkey 1 920-23
I I RipAofMiyira
Bairakiry ni tamtn ioumI eilablshtd by fatly nl Sewes 1920
2 kw ai&Ml under &«k no™iBfnjrm 1919
H taiongled by Greek notes 1971-??
Bandoy ol dim of iAxm ttrtMeM 1* toy of Shns 1920 3 l * B
KUR Felipe
Areci uf turnpscn nftieiKe:
2 Fintfeh
I Frmfi
his status as caliph (senior ruler in the Islamic world) which
gave Ottoman agents access to Muslim communities world-
wide, including those living under the British Raj.
Pan-Islamic policies met widespread, if covert, criticism
from those within the Ottoman elite who would have pre-
ferred a state with a nationalist Turkish identity to one with
a more diffuse Ottoman or Islamic facade. The empire's fault
lines were exposed by a new political force: the Committee
of Union and Progress (CUP), a successful, originally con-
spiratorial, pressure group dominated by Turkish nationalist
army officers, commonly nicknamed the "Young Turks". The
CUP was committed to the retention of "Turkey in Europe"
and relatively dismissive of the empire's Middle Eastern
provinces and peoples. In 1908 they forced the sultan to
renew the long-suspended constitution of 1876, and the fol-
lowing year deposed him in favour of his more pliant brother.
The CUP set out with democratic ideals but found that
these were incompatible with the empire's ethnic divisions.
Showpiece general elections served chiefly to demonstrate
the voting power of the minorities, particularly the Arabs.
CUP administration survived only by becoming increasingly
dictatorial, particularly when it faced a new round of terri-
torial losses. It was in an attempt to remedy this situation
that the leader of the CUP, Enver Pasha, with German mili-
tary assistance, took the Ottoman Empire to war in 1914.
Between 1914 and 1916 the empire survived a series of
Allied invasions (pages 218-19). Casualties were immense
and the loyalty of the empire's minority populations was
suspect, with thousands of Christian Armenians massacred for
their pro-Russian sympathies. Apathy and disaffection among
the empire's Arab Muslims was even more dangerous. In 1916
the Hashemi "sharif ', governor of Mecca, raised a desert army
which, allied with the British, successfully detached all
remaining Arab provinces from Turkish control.
The birth of the new Turkey
Post-war schemes for dismembering the empire and reduc-
ing the Ottoman sultanate to puppet status were built into the
Treaty of Sevres (1920), which the sultan's administration in
Constantinople meekly accepted, thereby losing any last
shred of credibility. An alternative Turkish nationalist gov-
ernment was set up at Ankara, led by Mustafa Kemal, later
named "Ataturk" (Father of the Turks). By 1923 the Ankara
regime had won diplomatic and military recognition from all
its former antagonists, including the Greeks, who had been
defeated by Kemal's forces in 1922.
The Sevres agreement was replaced by the more gener-
ous Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which legitimized Ankara's
right to govern an independent Turkish Republic in a region
broadly corresponding to modern Turkey. The Ottoman sul-
tanate was abolished by the treaty and the archaic caliphate
followed it into extinction in 1924.
▲ The Treaty of Sevres (1920) stripped
the Ottomans of the remains of their
empire, and divided Anatolia into European
"spheres of influence", leaving only a small
portion to be directly ruled by the sultan.
The Greeks, who saw the Turkish defeat as
an opportunity to claim territory in western
Anatolia with a substantial Greek
population, had dispatched troops to
Smyrna in 1919. Between 1920 and 1922
their troops established a firm grip on the
region. During this time, however, Turkish
nationalists became increasingly organized
under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, and
in August 1 922 a Turkish nationalist army
attacked the Greek forces and drove them
from Anatolia in disarray. The other
European powers, recognizing the
overwhelming Turkish support for Kemal,
withdrew, and the Republic of Turkey was
founded in 1923.
▲ As President of Turkey (1 923-38),
Mustafa Kemal ("Ataturk") instigated a
series of reforms that created a modern
secular state from the remains of the
Ottoman Empire.
© THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVID EMPIRES 1500-1683 pages 142-43 © THE MIDDLE EAST SINCE 1945 pages 260-61
RUSSIAN TERRITORIAL AND ECONOMIC
EXPANSION 1795-1914
▼ Between 1795 and 1914 Ruuio sought
Id expand ils territory in all possible
directions bul met wilh resistance from
rUisnki Britain and France when it
threatened (heir inlerests in the Mans in
the 1 850s. Expansion to ihe south and bos]
was inlermiHenl up unlil ihe 9 ElBOs, when il
was hailed by Btifeh power and by inter nel
financial difficulties. To the east, ihe Russian
Empire extended even anla toe canlinenl aF
North America, as far as northern California,
until Alaska was sold la the Americans far
$7 ? million in 1867. lo the southeast,
Russia ronn'nued lo eierl its influence in
Mondiutia and Mongols in ihe early years
ol the 201b tenlury, despite its defeat al ihe
hoods al ihe Japanese in 1905.
During tht 1 19th century Russia continued a process of
territorial expansion that had Ixigun in the I4f>0s hut
which was now largely confined ki Asia. Victory over
Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815 brought the acquisition of the
western part of Poland ("Congress Poland") and confirma-
tion of earlier gains in Finland in 1809 and Bessarabia in
1812 {map 1 1. However, this marked the end of expansion
to the west and in fact Romania soon cut its ties with Russia
and in 188.1 made an alliance with Germany and Austria
In the southwest the Transeaueasiaii territories were
acquired between 18(11 and 18.10 and the route to them
finally secured by the conquest ol Chechema — completed in
1859 - and Cherkessia in ISM.
In Central Asia. Russia seized large areas, often moving
in where there was a political vacuum it could fill and
perhaps resources it could exploit (alt hough it failed to
actually exploit them until the 1920s). The conquests began
(MIGRATION TO ASIATIC
Russia 1904-1 A
(numbers in thousands)
in the 1820s and accelerated from 185,1 onwards. In 1885,
however, Russian troops clashed with Afghan forces at
I'endjeh and came up against another imperialist power,
Itrltain, which sent a stern wanting that Afghanistan was not
for the taking.
In the mid-1 9th century Russia also turned its attention
to the eastern end of Asia, acquiring the regions north ami
south of the Amur River. This enabled it to establish
Vladivostok - the vital warm-water port that gave year-
round maritime access to the Far East. The Trans-Siberian
Railway - built between 1891 and 1904 - linked Vladivostok
to MOSCOW, and brought the potential for trade with the Far
Kast. It truipted Russian policymakers to take over
Manchuria in order to provide a more direct route to the
coast, despite warnings from economic pressure groups that
they should !>e concentrating on expanding internal markets
In Siberia. The dream of eastern expansion reached both its
apogee and its catastrophe in the Russo-Japanese War of
1904-5, which resulted in a humiliating defeat for I
The limits of the empire were thus finally set.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
Economic development
The economic development of the Russian Empire (map 2)
was continuous throughout the 19th century and into the
20th century, but four periods can be distinguished. First
there was slow and steady growth from 1800 to 1885, inter-
rupted by setbacks in the 1860s when the iron industry in
the Urals was adversely affected by the emancipation of the
serfs. (Many who had been forced to work in the mines fled
from the region on being freed.) Then, from 1885 to 1900,
there was rapid government-induced growth, with a one-
sided emphasis on railway building and heavy industry.
Economic stagnation, prolonged by the effects of the
revolution of 1905-7 (map 3), constituted the third period.
The final period, from 1908 to 1914, was a time of renewed
economic growth on a broader front.
It was during this last period that the big rush to
emigrate to Siberia began, stimulated by the government
itself, with the intention of solving the problem of land
shortage in European Russia that had contributed greatly to
the rural disturbances of 1905-7. Emigration to Siberia
increased rapidly (graph) and the population of Siberia rose
from 5.7 million in 1897 to 8.2 million in 1910. Settlement
was concentrated along the Trans-Siberian Railway, which
provided a link back to the west for a developing capitalist
agriculture and the gold, copper and coal mines.
The 1905 Revolution
Russia's economy expanded in the 1890s with little attention
to infrastructure and a complete refusal to link economic
with political changes. This created tremendous tensions in
the Russian social fabric, which were exacerbated by the
government's repressive measures and its attempts at a
gigantic foreign-policy diversion. "What we need to stem the
revolutionary tide," said the reactionary, anti-Semitic
Minister of the Interior Plehve in 1903, "is a small, vic-
torious war". However, the result of the Russo-Japanese War
of 1904-5 was precisely the opposite: the "revolutionary
tide" nearly swept away the whole tsarist system. Only the
loyalty of parts of the imperial army at the decisive moment,
in December 1905, saved the situation for Nicholas II.
The revolution of 1905 (or, more accurately, 1905-7)
started under liberal slogans, and indeed the demand for
representative popular government on the Western model
was a common denominator throughout. It developed,
however, into something much more threatening than a
mere change of political regime. The workers who went on
strike in 1905 set up councils, or "soviets", in every major
city of the Russian Empire (map 3). These institutions acted
as local organs of power, initally side by side with the old
authorities, and in some cases led armed revolts that aimed
at the complete overthrow of the imperial government.
They were to resurface in 1917, with a decisive impact on
Russian and world history.
The revolution of 1905 was not simply an urban move-
ment of Russian workers and intellectuals. Agriculture had
been neglected by the state in its drive for industrialization,
and since the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 it had
experienced either stagnation or a slight improvement,
interrupted by the dreadful famine of 1891. It is hardly
surprising that the peasants lost patience. The peasant
revolts of 1905-7 were the first large-scale risings since the
18th century, and they forced the government into an
abrupt change of policy (the Stolypin Reforms of 1906-10).
This was, however, ultimately ineffectual, since the govern-
ment carefully side-stepped the peasants' major grievance:
the issue of gentry landholding. The peasant movement
would revive with a vengeance in 1917 (pages 222-23).
The non-Russian nationalities also revolted in 1905,
demanding autonomy or independence, depending on their
level of social and national maturity. These demands would
also resurface in 1917, leading to the complete disinte-
gration of the Russian Empire, although the formation of the
Soviet Union in 1922 delayed the establishment of inde-
pendent national states on the territory of the former
Russian Empire for nearly 70 years.
■ r
\
-■<*+ 0°"* ° ju °<
to
2 The economic development of European Russia 1 300-1 9 1 4
Synods *i ■ : developed beforo 1 340
fyrtofc-i ■ . fedopd 1B60-1H4
M'M [«*nuiir*g
11 «l Iran arc inning
QO Copper ore iwwq
□ □ (riUmning
En iYlffli[jpi>Be arc mming
-" . &few* y
a D MeMkigy
A a 01 1:.!,::: ji
O O Sugar boe-1 irarofadue
'l Ruiscid Tarirwy
fejirnii'j :i! I9H
▲ Industrial expansion occurred mainly in
engineering, metarworking and mining,
with the development of engineering
around Moscow and oil extraction around
Baku particularly noticeable. Overall, the
period 1 800—1 914 saw a clear shift in the
centre of economic gravity from the Urals
to the Ukraine and Poland.
▼ During the years of revolution, 1 905-7,
urban revolt was widespread across
European Russia, with strikes and armed
uprisings. In some cities workers organized
themselves into Soviets. Revolts also took
place in large cities in Siberia and Central
Asia, where there was a substantial Russian
or Ukrainian population. Rural revolt, on the
other hand, was most intense in the Ukraine
and to the south of Moscow, in provinces
where land was held in common by the
peasants and redivided every 20 years
according to family size. This led to a
strongly developed sense of community,
making the peasants sympathetic to socialist
revolutionary agitators.
y\i'% '\-
3 THf YEARS WMVOLUTWN 1905-7
I I hasonlindtiflSO-tt'iotan
^] Peosant fflwitr in Mr 7 5% of orea
• Smki ii urnourw lMS/lWi/l M7
O iwer t( Wakm' BegutiK aBifchEd n irtofl SM IMS
G Annad uprising m uriwi ww Dwaroiei t Wi
O MBtav mutiny 1 905/1 TO6/1 907
Bli
V
© THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA 1462-1795 pages 148-49 © THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 1917-39 pages 222-23
THE WESTWARD EXPANSION OF THE
UNITED STATES 1783-1910
r
Htf*
-
Ink - ^C
▲ The expedition of Meriwether Lewis and
William Clark in 1804-6 succeeded in its
quest to find a route from the Mississippi to
the Pacific. Like so many pioneering
journeys in the West, it relied heavily on the
local knowledge of Native Americans.
Sacajawea (pictured here with Clark) - a
Shoshone woman who had lived with the
Mandan - was particularly valuable to the
venture as a translator.
Throughout the 19th century American pioneers
moved inexorably westwards across the Appalachian
Mountains in search of good farmland and new oppor-
tunities. Either through diplomacy, conquest or purchase,
millions of acres of new territory came under United States
control to form the transcontinental nation that we recog-
nize today. This enormous landmass was swiftly occupied
by settlers, and as these new areas gained large populations
they were admitted to the Union as states.
In 1783 the new nation extended from the Atlantic coast
westwards as far as the Mississippi River (map 1). Its terri-
tory was subsequently enlarged in two great expansionist
movements. Firstly, with great astuteness, Thomas Jefferson
bought a great swathe of the Midwest from France in 1803
for a meagre 815 million. The "Louisiana Purchase", as it
was known, instantly doubled the size of the United States.
West Florida was annexed in 1813, while under the
Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded all of East Florida
to the United States and gave up its claim to territory north
of the 42nd parallel in the Pacific northwest.
The second wave of expansion involved the acquisition
of Texas, Oregon and California. In 1835 American settlers
in Texas staged a successful revolt against Mexican rule,
winning the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836, and the Republic
of Texas was born. The Mexican War (1846-48) between the
United States and its weaker southern neighbour resulted
in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), which gave the
United States not only California but a huge region in the
southwest (map 1 ).
~^HT
1 Territorial expansion from 1 783
tlhMSttnlNIS
'.-.M-i ■ H-il-liM IW5
HI OnojonCouMTf IMi JL
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▲ The United States expanded westwards
to the Pacific by a series of financial deals,
negotiated settlements and forcible
annexations. As each new territory was
colonized by American settlers and a viable
government formed, it became eligible for
admission to the Union as a state and
entitled to representation in Congress.
For many years, Britain had contested America's claims
to the Oregon Country. Its Hudson's Bay Company con-
trolled the region but, in the face of growing American
immigration in the west of the region, Britain surrendered
most of the area south of the 49th parallel to the United
States in the Oregon Treaty of 1846 (map 2). With the
Gadsden Purchase in 1853, the United States owned all the
territory of its present states except for Alaska (purchased
from Russia in 1867) and Hawaii (annexed in 1898).
Explorers of the West
At the beginning of the 19th century part of the impetus to
venture west came from the desire to increase trade - not
only with the Native Americans but also with Asia. Reports
from the expedition of Lewis and Clark (1804-6) (map 3)
provided valuable information about the natural wealth of
Stages of settiumht
■ JrassaMbrlWO
■ *nsKMin(M830
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A Settlement took place in a number of
stages, often as a result of the displacement
of people from areas within the United
States caused by political and economic
developments. Many European economic
migrants also became American pioneers.
the West. Zebulon Pike (1804-7) explored the sources of the
Mississippi and visited Colorado and New Mexico, while
Stephen H. Long (1817-23) investigated lands near the Red
and Arkansas rivers. As well as these government agents,
traders and fur trappers, such as Jedediah Smith, travelled
extensively between the Missouri and the Pacific coast. It
was they who opened the Santa Fe Trail between New
Mexico and Missouri in 1821, while "mountain men",
hunting in the Rockies in the 1820s, spread word of the
riches to be found there.
Westward migration
The American people flowed west in several distinct migra-
tion waves (map 2). The War of 1812 against Britain led to
many people overcoming their fear of opposition from
Native Americans and travelling westwards to find new agri-
cultural land. Thousands of newcomers established small
farms in what was known as the "Old Northwest" (now part
of the Midwest). Most of the first settlers were southerners
who had been displaced by the growth of the plantation
system with its slave labour force. By 1830 their settlements
filled southern Indiana and Illinois and were overrunning
Missouri. In the following decade newcomers from the
northeast settled around the Great Lakes, and by 1840
almost all the Old Northwest had been carved into states.
Many pioneers had also moved into the newly acquired ter-
ritory of Florida and into the land bordering the Gulf of
Mexico. Most settlers here came from the southeast, looking
for fields where they could grow cotton. Small farmers had
been followed by large-scale planters, who brought slaves to
the region - the majority from the eastern states. Once set-
tlers had occupied the entire area, pioneers began to push
beyond the Mississippi.
Many Americans believed in "manifest destiny", the idea
that America was destined by God and by history to expand
its boundaries over the whole of North America. After 1843,
each spring, eager adventurers gathered at Independence,
Missouri to organize wagon trains to travel the overland
Oregon Trail across the Great Plains (map 3). This early
trickle of settlement was hugely accelerated by the discov-
ery of gold in California in 1848. When gold fever swept the
nation, more than 100,000 "Forty-Niners" poured into
California. Although relatively few found gold, many stayed
on as farmers and shopkeepers.
Utah was settled not by profit-seeking adventurers but
by Mormons searching for an isolated site where they could
freely worship without persecution. The journey of the
Mormons to the shores of Great Salt Lake in 1847 was one
of the best-organized migrations in history.
Much of the West remained unsettled even after the
frontier reached the Pacific Ocean. During the Civil War
(1861-65) pioneers settled in the region between the Rocky
ATLAS OF WOULD HISTORY: PART 4
Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, and after the war ranch-
ers and farmers occupied the Great Plains west of the
Mississippi. Cattle ranching on the open ranges involved
driving herds over long distances along recognized trails
(map 3), from the pasture lands to the railhead and on to
market. However, the "cattle kingdom" was short-lived. The
pastures became exhausted, and the Homestead Act of 1862
encouraged farmers to move from the east onto free or low-
cost land. The settlers enclosed the pasture lands, barring
the roving cattle herds. This settlement was greatly facili-
tated by the new east-west railroads (pages 186-87).
The Native Americans
As the pioneers moved westwards they ruthlessly took over
land from Native Americans and fighting often broke out
(map 4). The US government sent in support for the settlers
and federal troops won most encounters of the so-called
Indian Wars (1861-68, 1875-90). Settlement of the West
largely brought an end to the traditional way of life of the
Native Americans. Farmers occupied and fenced in much of
the land, and white settlers moving west slaughtered buffalo
herds on which many Native Americans depended for their
survival. At the same time, the federal government pushed
more and more Native Americans onto reservations.
In the short period of one century, the United States
expanded from being an infant rural nation confined to the
Atlantic coast to a transcontinental powerhouse, with a
large rural and industrial population. This territorial expan-
sion occurred at a phenomenal speed and settlement
proceeded rapidly, despite formidable physical and human
obstacles. Having established its own internal empire from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, the USA was now in a position to
challenge European supremacy on the world stage.
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▼ In 1806 a government-funded
expedition, led by Lewis and Clark,
established a route between the Mississippi
River and the west coast. Alternative
overland routes were established by
pioneers seeking land or gold, and by
surveyors looking (or railroad routes.
A During the 18th century the Delaware
Native Americans made a slow westward
migration and in 1830 the Indian Removal
Act also forced the southern tribes westward.
Demands by white settlers for more land led
to the establishment of Indian reservations
and a series of bloody conflicts.
© THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1775-83 pages 164-65 © THE INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 1790-1900 pages 186-87
THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
1861-65
Casuaities of the Civil War
275.1 ?5
I.5M.M3
i
imm
A The Union was able to muster many
more troops than the Confederacy, and
suffered a smaller proportion of
casualties. Overall, 20 per cent of soldiers
in the Gvil War died - the majority of
them as a result of disease.
T Although it was the issue of slavery that
prompted the Southern states to secede
from the Union, the situation was not
clearcut, with four of the Union states -
Delaware, Maryland, Missouri and Kentucky
- permitting slavery. Kansas joined the
Union as a free state in 1861.
The American Civil War was fought between the
Northern states (the Union), who wished to maintain
the United States of America as one nation, and the
Southern states (the Confederacy), who had seceded to form
their own nation. The causes of the war included the long-
standing disagreements over slavery and its expansion into
the new territories, as well as conflicts over economic dis-
parities between North and South and the division of power
between the federal government and individual states.
Although slavery had been a marginal issue in the found-
ing of the Republic, abolitionists began to attack this
Southern institution in the early 19th century. Following
the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which forbade slavery in
the Louisiana Purchase (pages 182-83) north of 36° 36',
many thought that slavery would gradually die out as the
tobacco industry declined. After 1830, however, the opening
up of virgin lands in the Deep South to the cotton economy
(map 1), coupled with the ever-increasing demand of
European textile mills for raw cotton, suddenly enhanced
the value of slave labour.
The sectional divide
American politics began to divide according to sectional
interests, focusing on the status of slavery in the new
western territories. The Compromise of 1850 forbade
slavery in California (map 2), while the Kansas-Nebraska
Act of 1854 opened up these two territories to slavery -
leading to much violence in Kansas.
Against this background, the Republican Party was
formed to prevent further expansion of slavery, although in
the controversial Dred Scott decision in 1857 the Supreme
Court ruled that Congress could not exclude slavery from
the territories.
The issue of slavery came to the forefront during the
presidential election of 1860. The Republican candidate,
Abraham Lincoln, was hostile to slavery and opposed its
extension to new territories, although he had pledged not to
interfere with it where it already existed. Following his elec-
tion as President in 1860, however, South Carolina
immediately seceded from the Union, a decision followed
by Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and
Texas. These seven states formed the independent
Confederate States of America early in 1861 and they would
be joined by four more (Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee
and Arkansas) once war was declared.
-' 2 The legal position of slavery 1 36 1
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A The census of 1 860 revealed that there
were nearly four million slaves in the
southern United States, the majority of
whom were agricultural workers. They were
considered vital to the profitability of cotton
production, which had expanded to meet an
increased demand from the rapidly
industrializing countries of western Europe.
The outbreak of war
War broke out on 12 April 1861 when Southern forces
opened fire on federal-owned Fort Sumter. Arguing that
secession was illegal and that the Union must be preserved,
Lincoln took this as a declaration of war. Given the South 's
dependence on European imports, the strategy of the North
was to starve the South into submission by encirclement
and blockade (map 3).
The Confederacy won some early victories in 1861-62,
successfully repelling Union attempts to capture their
capital at Richmond, Virginia. The Union was forced (in par-
ticular by the defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run in July
1861) to disband its militia in favour of a new army of
500,000 volunteers. As the war progressed, however, both
sides were forced to introduce conscription to raise troops.
While the Union cause seemed imperilled in the east, in
the southwest Union forces were successful in their attempt
to seize control of the Mississippi, culminating in the
capture of New Orleans, the largest city and most important
port in the Confederacy. The Confederate attempt to invade
Maryland in September 1862 was thwarted at the Battle of
Antietam. This encouraged President Lincoln to sign the
Emancipation Proclamation on 1 January 1863, which freed
all slaves in the Confederacy. Although it did not apply to
Union states in which slavery was still permitted (map 2), it
nevertheless gave the conflict a new moral purpose: to
preserve the Union and abolish slavery. Freedom for the
slaves took place gradually as the Union armies moved
southwards, and the Proclamation helped break down the
opposition to recruitment of African-American soldiers. By
the war's end, 186,000 of them had served in Union armies,
albeit in segregated regiments under the command of white
officers and at vastly reduced levels of pay.
As the war progressed, the Union's greater manpower
and superior economic and industrial resources began to
prevail. The Union victory at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in
July 1863 proved to be the major turning point. The
Confederacy was never strong enough again to undertake
another major offensive. The next day the Confederate gar-
rison of Vicksburg, Louisiana, which had been besieged by
the Unionists since mid-May, surrendered. Not only had the
Confederacy suffered huge and irreplaceable losses in the
east, but it was also now split in two, with Union troops con-
trolling the Mississippi. The second half of 1863 saw further
decisive battles in the west in the Tennessee campaign, with
the Confederate forces being driven back into Georgia.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
3 The Civil Wat
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In 1864 the Union implemented two simultaneous cam-
paigns. TKe first, centred (in Virginia, saw some of the
fiercest fighting of the war (map 3 inset), with no real
Victory tor either side, although this war of attrition gradu-
ally depleted the human and material resources of the
(Ion federates. In the second Union campaign Atlanta was
captured, followed by General Sherman's "scorched earth"
march through Georgia to Savannah and then north
through the Carolinas, which caused much devastation and
famine in its wake. Wilmington, the Confederate's last
remaining seaport, was effectively closed down at the begin-
ning of liSfo as a result of the Union naval blockade of
Moutheni ports. At the outset of the war. the Confederacy
had believed that the demand from Uritain and France for
cotton would force them to enter the war on its behalf. As
the war progressed, however, the two countries decided not
to risk intervention for a losing eause.
The Confederate General Robert K. Lee was forced to
evacuate Petersburg and Richmond, and surrender to
General Ulysses S. < Irant at Appomattox Court House on ( >
April 1865, effectively ending the war. fly the end of May,
the last Confederate forces had laid down their arms.
Tltk Kill ST MODERN WAR
In many ways the Civil War was the first "modern" war. It
was fought by mass citizen volunteer and conscript armies,
rather than by professional soldiers. Railroads played a
crucial role in the movement of troops and raw materials,
while telegraphs were used for military communication as
well as for virtually immediate Press reporting. The war also
saw the first use of rudimentary iron-clad battleships,
machine-guns, trench systems and dugouts.
The Civil War was fought at the cost of enormous loss of
life (pie charts), but it had the ultimate effect of preserving
the United States of America as one nation by settling the
dispute over the division of power between the federal gov-
ernment and individual states in favour of the former. It also
effectively ended the institution of slavery, although it did
little to resolve the problem of race relations, which reached
a climax a century later (port's 240-41 I. Furthermore, as
the final decades of the 1 9th century were to reveal, the
Civil War brought many economic benefits to the North,
under whose leadership the United States had
developed, by the end of the century, into the world's
greatest industrial power.
A Iter of rht lighting in the Civil Wat
took plate on Southern territory, with the
tonfettetales odoo'ing defensive tenia cm
familiar terrain, odd the Union side farced
to maintain lengthy supply lines. The Union
side devised ihe "Anaconda Plan" by which
they first encircled the Southern slates by
land and sen, ond then spirt them up by
seizing control of Ihe Mmhtippi River in the
spring of 1 363 ond marching through
Georgia in ihe winlet of 1 864 — 65.
© WESTWARD EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES 1783-1910 pages 182-83 © INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 1790-1900 pages 186-87
THE INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THE
UNITED STATES 1790-1900
1 RMLROADS AND MNALS 1860
RnilrDori
EM
During the course of the 1'Jth century the I'nitcd
States was transformed from a simple agrarian
republic into a modern industrial nation. This
process of industrialization occurred in two main phases.
In the first, from 1800 to the Civil War ( 1861-65), dWelop-
incnts in transportation and manufacturing, and an
increase in population, resulted in a capitalist commercial
economy. In the second phase a dramatic acceleration in
the rate of change alter 1.S65 led to the creation of the
modern American industrial superpower.
Early industrialization
t :hanges in transportation provided the main catalyst for
industrialization: improved national communication created
larger markets and greatly facilitated the movement of
goods. Services and people. The earliest manifestation of this
development was the laying down of hard-surfaced roads,
known as turnpikes, mainly in New England and the mid-
Atlantic states. During the "Turnpike Era" (17W-1820)
more than 3,200 kilometres (2,000 miles) of road were
constructed, the earliest being the Lancaster Pike I 17*14)
between Philadelphia and Lancaster, Pennsylvania, The
most famous turnpike, the government-financed National
Road, had crossed the Appalachian Mountains from
Maryland to Virginia by IS 18 and reached Illinois by 1638,
These roads provided an early stimulus to economic devel-
opment and westward expansion.
The turnpikes were followed by advances in river and
lake transportation, The first of the commercially successful
steamboats started operating on the Hudson River in 18(17,
hut these ships became more widely used further west.
travelling up and down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and
■4 The development ol (anal and railroad
syslecns. coupled with ihe navigation oi
rivers by steamboats, enabled a two-way
trade flaw whereby row materials from ihe
west and south were tiompoiled lo Ihe east
and relumed as rnoauloctured goods.
A The industries of the United Stales
benefited from lid) natural resources,
pactkulorfy tool and melal ores, which were
transported lo the industrial regions along a
network of railroads, navigable rivers and
canals. Industrial conflict occurred from Ibe
1 870s onwards as workers demanded a
share of the rou nicy's incceased wealth.
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tool muni) ft Gil and ga drilling
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
their tributaries. The steamboats stimulated the agricultural
economies of the Midwest and the south by providing quick
access to markets for their produce at greatly reduced
prices, and enabled manufacturers in the east to send their
finished goods westwards.
The first half of the 19th century also witnessed wide-
scale building of canals. In 1816 there were only 160
kilometres (100 miles) of canal; by 1840 this figure had
risen to 5,321 kilometres (3,326 miles) (map 1). The Erie
Canal was completed in 1825, connecting Albany, New York
to Buffalo on Lake Erie, thereby giving New York City direct
access to the growing markets of Ohio and the Midwest via
the Great Lakes, and to the Mississippi via the Ohio River.
The first railroad was opened between Baltimore (which
funded the project) and Ohio in 1830. Other cities followed
Baltimore's example, and, with the markets of Ohio, Indiana
and Illinois in mind, 5,324 kilometres (3,328 miles) of track
had been laid by 1840 - a figure which trebled over the next
ten years. In the 1860s federal land grants encouraged rail-
road building to link together all parts of the nation and
enable the quick and inexpensive movement of goods and
people over great distances (map 1).
The introduction of the telegraph in 1837 further
enhanced the speed of communication. By 1861 there were
80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of telegraph cable in the
United States, connecting New York on the Atlantic with
San Francisco on the Pacific coast.
Developments in manufacturing
Alongside developments in transportation, the early 19th
century also saw the transition from craftwork in homes and
in small shops to larger-scale manufacturing with machines.
Domestic US manufacturing began to flourish when imports
were scarce during the War of 1812 against Britain. The
textile industry spearheaded these developments, with
Francis Lowell founding, in 1813, the first mill in North
America that combined all the operations of converting raw
cotton into finished cloth under one roof: a "factory" system
based on machine technology. These early forms of manu-
facturing were concentrated in the east and mainly processed
the products of American farms and forests.
A primary factor in the industrial growth of the United
States was an abundance of raw materials (map 2). In addi-
tion, the country benefited from a large and expanding
labour force, which also provided a vast domestic market
for industrial goods. By 1860 its population had reached
31.5 million, exceeding that of Britain.
Industrialization after the Civil War
In 1860 American industry was still largely undeveloped.
Most industrial operations were small in scale, hand-craft-
ing remained widespread and there was insufficient capital
for business expansion. This situation changed fundament-
ally after the Civil War (pages 184-85), with the rapid
development of new technologies and production
processes. Machines replaced hand-crafting as the main
means of manufacturing, and US productive capacity
increased at a rapid and unprecedented rate. Industrial
growth was chiefly centred on the north, while the south
largely remained an agricultural region.
More than 25 million immigrants entered the United
States between 1870 and 1916 (bar chart). Mass immigra-
tion, coupled with natural growth, caused the population to
more than double between 1870 and 1910 to reach 92
million. In the new industrialized nation great cities and an
urban culture flourished (map 3).
In the late 19th century mass industrialization was stim-
ulated by a surge in technological innovation and improved
factory production methods, enabling goods to be produced
faster, in greater quantity and thus more cheaply than ever
before. The typewriter was introduced in 1867, followed by
the cash register and the adding machine. Electricity was
first used as a power source in the 1870s, while international
telegraph cables and the invention of the telephone assisted
communication in the latter part of the century.
New Haven
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Railroad-building likewise increased at a dramatic rate,
providing a great stimulus to coal and steel production and
rivalling the steamboat and canal barge as a means of trans-
portation. By the 1880s a nationwide network of railroads
enabled goods to be distributed quickly and cheaply through-
out the country, often over great distances from the point of
production (map 2).
The highly profitable railroads provided the model for the
development of the modern corporations that financed and
directed this great industrial expansion. In order to eliminate
cut-throat competition between companies and to encour-
age capital investment for further expansion and greater
efficiency, enterprises were increasingly consolidated into
large-scale units, often monopolies, owned by limited
liability shareholders. The federal government helped to
create an entrepreneurial climate in which business and
trade could flourish without undue hindrance.
As a result of these developments the United States was
transformed, by the end of the 19th century, from an
essentially agrarian economy into a country in which half of
its now culturally diversified population lived in its ever-
growing cities. It had replaced Britain as the world's leading
industrial power, and was thus set to dominate the global
economy in the 20th century.
▲ By 1 900 the population of the United
States had reached 76 million, half of whom
lived in the large cities that had grown in
the northern industrial region.
T The pattern of migration to the United
States was influenced partly by political and
economic developments in Europe. Before
the 1 890s most immigrants came from
northern and western Europe, in particular
from Ireland following the Potato Famine in
the 1840s, and from Germany. By 1900
the majority of migrants were from central
and eastern Europe, Russia and Italy.
European immigration to the United States
I lim
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© THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 1775-83 pages 164-65 © THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1900 pages 240-41
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CANADA
1763-1914
I
^
M-"
y*S
,,.'"
^fVJ
win i f,
UeBoJ^
1 Settlement in ustern
Cmud* BEFORE 18Z 5
J F;.:-.-
"ZJ ErqfrJl Mae 1783
| Scarlish Lerlai-.- 1/33
£ GOTTVD
| Srtah nl» 173]
~^] Amee'ren loyitori eltei 17B3
A Since ihe 17lh refllury Frenrh speaking
Canadians had largely settled along the Si
Lawrence DivBr. However, in His 177lh and
I 7a , 0s American Loyalists, escaping nam lire
newly farmed United Stales, migrated to the
southwestern part of the old province of
Quebec and to the British colony of Nova
Scotia, necessitating, the creation of another
colony. Hew Brunswkk.
D:
tiring the 18th century territorial rivalry between the
) French and British in North America gradually
increased, coming to a head in the Seven Years War
of 1756-63: Although the British initially suffered defeats,
their troops rapidly gained the upper hand after the appoint-
ment of General Wolfe in 1757 and hy 1 7d(> they had
effectively defeated [he French, France surrendered Canada
id Britain in the Treaty of Paris in 1763, and Britain found
itself in the unprecedented situation of having a colon)' with
H large white population of approximately 6,5(1(1, who were
non-English-speaking and Roman Catholic. The British
parliament passed the Quebec Act in 1774, which greatly
enlarged the territory of Que Bee (pages 164-65), guaran-
teed freedom of religion to French Canadians {at a time
when Roman Catholic subjects in Britain were effectively
excluded from political participation), and recognised the
validity of French civil law. These measures succeeded in
securing the loyalty of the Canadians at a time of increasing
discontent in the British colonies elsewhere in America,
During the American Revolution (1775-83) (pqfiea Ifyf-OS)
attempts hy the Thirteen Colonies first to secure Canadian
support, and then to invade the region, failed.
The creation of the United States of America had signi-
ficant repercussions for Canada. It not only defined the
Canadian-American border (with Britain giving up all land
south of the Great Lakes) but also fundamentally altered the
composition of Canada's population. Between 4(1,00(1 and
60,000 Americans who remained loyal to the British crown
flooded into ( lauada during and after the war, creating the
basis for Canada's Knglish-speaking population (inun J ).
TilK Oinstititioinal Act in 1791
The loss of the Thirteen Colonies encouraged Britain to
tighten its rule over its remaining North American posses-
sions. Acknowledging the Ineuliural nature of the Canadian
population and the loyalists' desire for some form of repre-
sentative government, the Constitutional Act of 17'H
divided Quebec into two self-ruling parts - English-speak-
ing I'pper Canada I now Ontario) and French-speaking,
largely Catholic, bower Canada (now Quebec) -dominated
by a British governor and an appointed legislative council.
There were also significant English-speaking pockets in
lyowcr 4 lanada. most notably the dominant merchant class
in Montreal and farmers in the eastern townships. Canadian
independence was further secured when repeated American
invasions were repelled in the War of 1812.
Westward expansion
Canada's survival as an independent country ultimately
depended on population growth and economic develop-
ment. In the east, internal communications were improved
in the first half of the l'Jth century through the construc-
tion of roads and canals. Canada's western Pacific regions
had been opened up in the last decades of the 18th century
by explorers such as Alexander Mackenzie (map 2). Simon
Eraser and David Thompson, with fur traders and the
British Hudson's Bay Company (which also controlled vast
tracts In the northeast of the country) following swiftly
behind, hi the central region, south of Lake Winnipeg,
settlement was encouraged hy the Scottish philanthropist
Lord Selkirk, who set up the Red River colony for Scottish
A In 1 792 Alexander Mukenae led an
expedition from Lake Athabasca la find on
outfel to fhe Pacific Ocean. The explorers
braved the rapids of the Peace and Finer
rivers before emerging an ihe wesl canst
ol North America al Bella Coola the
following year.
►■ Expansion wast into the prairies and
along the west eoosi during the )9lh century
was preceded by journeys of exploration.
wfikfi wgre often undertaken ay fur traders.
The completion of ihe Canadian Pacific
Railroad in 1 835 provided a huge boost lo
Irode across Canodo, and numerous
settlements developed along its route.
•o ■ ■
2 WlSIWMD EXPANSION TO 1 9 11
tans settled:
■ 'before 1971
1 1671-1191
ZJ 1691-1911
torodoi Po* fatal, umptaMl I8S5
1801 Tiot«l CgumfaiJiio or b9 sertomt*
-
■ fenit»s**>dsi» 1797-93
/f
Unite ol Ikmtsm 1807-11
Town k*itHpo|nJefon 1171
□ ma I0O.QOD
8> 25.0O0-100.DOC
o bell* 25,006
AUA5 OF WORLD HISTOrT: nil 4
/
. , ^— TERfitT0RjE5
3 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT SINCE 1867
[bu'ilMiy of Diignii' CjitldErn'im 1 66?
im
V-bet wIhii prcwince altered Carttedeffllipn
—
twidtji, 1 of Rupert's land. rwfhn;«l
by Canadicn government 1870
1 1
Provinces qfter 191 Z
□
fernnjfies after 1912
n
JriKliraloiyunliim?
—
OM«byl?l!
!
hfiAtV tidiUtj promt 191 1/I9I7
—
BeundaiY estDUrshBd 1V27
—
Boundary eMolliihte 1 599
Jgr
immigrants in 1812. Two British colonies were founded on
the Pacific coast: Vancouver Island (1849) and British
Columbia (1858), which united in 1866.
From Union to Confederation
Canadian discontent with oligarchic rule led to two short
rebellions in both Upper and Lower Canada in 1837 and
1838, forcing Britain to reassess how best to keep Canada
within the empire and how to unite the French and English
Canadians. The resulting Act of Union of 1840 combined
Upper and Lower Canada into the new Province of Canada
and by 1848 Canadians had gained a degree of self-govern-
ment. Under this system, however, both Canada West and
Canada East (formerly Upper and Lower Canada respec-
tively) had equal representation in the province's legislative
assembly. This did little to ensure national unity and
encouraged political stalemate; further problems arose after
1850, when the population of Canada West exceeded that
of Canada East, with the former unsuccessfully demanding
representation by population.
During the 1850s and 1860s calls grew to dissolve this
ineffectual union and to replace it with some form of federal
government by which each part of Canada could control its
own affairs while a central government protected national
defence and common interests. Constitutional change was
also spurred on by external events. Britain increasingly
wanted Canadians to shoulder the burden of their own
defence, while Canada felt increasingly threatened by fears
of an anti-British American invasion during the American
Civil War (1861-65) and by the reality of raids across its
borders in the 1860s by Fenians (Irish Americans demand-
ing Irish independence from Britain). After conferences in
Charlottetown and Quebec (1864), the British North
America Act was signed by Queen Victoria in 1867.
This act created the largely self-governing federation or
Dominion of Canada under the British crown, with a con-
stitution based on the British parliamentary system. It
initially comprised only four provinces (map 3), with a pop-
ulation of 3.5 million people, only 100,000 of whom lived
west of the Great Lakes. The driving ambition of the
"Fathers of the Confederation" was to unite all of the
remaining British colonies in North America in order to
achieve the economic and social development necessary for
a viable nation, especially in the face of ongoing American
expansionism.
In 1870 the government vastly extended Canadian ter-
ritory by purchasing Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay
Company (map 3); while the company retained its trading
station and forts, it gave up its monopoly of the area which
had long been difficult to enforce. The province of Manitoba
was created in the same year, following the Red River
Rebellion by settlers of mixed French and Native American
ancestry, led by the metis Louis Riel. In 1871 British
Columbia joined as Canada's sixth province after the
promise of a transcontinental railroad (completed in 1885)
linking it to eastern Canada (map 2). Similar financial
incentives enabled Prince Edward Island to become the
seventh province in 1873, although Newfoundland remained
a proud self-governing colony until 1949.
Realizing that population growth was necessary for
national survival, the Canadian government actively pro-
moted immigration from the British Isles and the United
States and, towards the end of the century, from central and
eastern Europe; this once more changed the cultural and
ethnic mix of Canada's population. The new settlers
moved primarily to unoccupied lands on the prairies
(map 2), which enabled the provinces of Alberta and
Saskatchewan to be created in 1905. In 1912 the remaining
parts of the former Hudson's Bay Company lands were
added to Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba.
Tensions between the British and French
The position of French Canadians as a cultural minority
within the Confederation led to ongoing tension, exacer-
bated by Canada's decision to send volunteer troops to fight
for the British Empire in the Boer War (1899-1902). The
situation reached crisis point when, in 1917, the Canadian
parliament introduced conscription. Ironically, the fact that
55,000 Canadians lost their lives fighting for the empire in
the First World War led ultimately to the transformation of
Canada into a fully independent sovereign nation under the
Statute of Westminster in 1931.
▲ Between the establishment of the
original four provinces of the Dominion
of Canada in 1 867 and the outbreak of the
First World War in 1 914, the political map
of Canada changed dramatically. As the
population grew in the newly settled
territories, provinces were created and
federated to the central government in
Ottawa. In 1912 Manitoba and Ontario were
greatly enlarged to the north, with the
annexation of land from the Northwest
Territories. Further boundary changes
occurred in 1 927, when the colony of
Newfoundland was enlarged at the expense
of Quebec, and in 1 999, when the Nunavut
Territory - administered by its majority
Inuit inhabitants - was created.
© THE COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 1600-1763 pages 124-25
INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE
CARIBBEAN 1780-1830
T In 1800 the majority of Latin America
was under Spanish control, administered by
viceroys and captains-general. The
Portuguese were still in control of Brazil and
the British ruled in Guiana, where they had
temporarily expanded to take over the
adjacent Dutch territory (now Surinam).
The French had taken control of Santo
Domingo from the Spanish but were to lose
it in 1 809. They had already lost the colony
of Saint Domingue in 1 804, when it became
independent Haiti. The Spanish territory
was rich in minerals and included Potosi,
the silver-mining capital of the world,
although its resources were by now on
the verge of being exhausted.
In 1800 (map 1) few people, either in Europe or the
Americas, could have anticipated that 25 years later all
of Spain's mainland American colonies would be inde-
pendent republics. Several colonial rebellions had occurred
during the late 18th century, but they had all been defeated,
and should not be interpreted as antecedents of indepen-
dence. The most significant of these uprisings, in Peru, was
interesting for what it revealed about the fundamental alle-
giances of Spanish American Creoles (those of Spanish
descent, born in the colonies). In 1780 a Creole revolt
against Spanish tax increases was superseded by an anti-
Spanish rebellion among the American Indians, led by
Tupac Amaru. The small minority of Creoles hastily jetti-
soned their own protest in favour of helping the colonial
authorities to suppress this revivalist Inca movement - at
the cost of 100,000 lives, most of them Indian.
Creole allegiance
The Creoles' fear of the African, Indian and mixed-race
peoples, who made up approximately 80 per cent of
Spanish America's population in the late 18th century,
meant that many of them looked to Spain to defend their
dominant social and economic position. This rationale was
strengthened after a slave revolt in the French Caribbean
colony of Saint Domingue in 1791 led to the founding, in
1804, of Haiti, the first African-Caribbean republic in the
Americas. Most Creoles calculated that their interests
ultimately depended on Spain, despite an expanding list of
grievances against the mother country. It was not until
Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, and installed Joseph
Bonaparte in place of the Bourbon King Ferdinand, that
some Creoles began to reconsider their options. They were
presented with three main choices: to support Joseph
Bonaparte; to declare allegiance to the provisional Spanish
Hi,,, N»w
VICEROYALTY SW
OF NEW SPAM
UNITED STATES
""' til
SAINT BOMJNGUE
SANTO DOMINGO
A ( t a n t i ■
Of. a »
^r-(w
GihwkJiP I
CAPTAINCY-GENERAL '^jUi
f.'tiriWjtnn tft-'H
\
OF GUATEMALA
VKEROVAlTlf
GUIANA
P a c if i C
O c e a ti
1 uiin America and the
Caribbean 1800
[aland nownr
| toiled
| Portugal [ ^j Froxe
QAfl "^O^ i ' M "~/ RiODELAPIAIA
1 r f (i » f i l-
O c *.' u n
Safxa 8 IS
Bogota.
> Guayaquil
2 Liberation campaigns of Bolivar and San Martjn
,\ }■-,
— *■ Wra^ tteww of taMuelo 1817-18
— ►■ San Wortln's [ojnprjrjn of liberation in Chile 1817-18
*■ D'Higgwis's [cirapaHjn af liberation in Chile 1817-18
— *• Bnlteii'ilJierahmnifCokinilwiait
«. Son Vnrrin - ! ciHTipiiigr to Hoenm FTenj 1B19-Z1
* F^^'ltomto^iDOOiraTEffydislitsiigeratwVenjlwiD 18?t
— *■ Buhl's and Sums IforatmnlOurn 182?
■ — »- Snn Mnrtln'^ iwrney ru meer 0otivor r gnd ht ceporiure IS??
— t* BoWs and Sucre's Ifaratinnaf fern 1823-24
> Bolivar's niumphnl vnil Id estuhfish indepflffllwil BoImh I82S
^
A Venezuelan-born Simon Bolivar was
involved in two failed insurrections before his
successful campaigns against the Spanish in
New Granada in 1 817-22, resulting in the
creation of a new Republic of Gran Colombia.
During this time Jose de San Martin, aided
by Bernardo O'Higgins, had been liberating
Chile. Leaving O'Higgins behind as president
of the new state of Chile, San Martin travelled
north to take Lima and to attempt to liberate
what was to become Peru. In 1 822 he was
forced to seek help from Bolivar, and in
September 1822 retired from command.
Bolivar subsequently completed the liberation
of Peru at the Battle of Junin. In this he
was aided by Antonio Jose de Sucre, who
went on to win the final battle against the
Spanish at Ayacucho in 1 824.
The following year Bolivar made a
triumphal visit to the region, during which
he established the independent republic of
Bolivia, which was named in honour of the
"Great Liberator". Bolivar himself returned to
Colombia but was unable to hold together the
republic he had created, and in 1 830 (the
year of his death) it broke up into the three
modern-day states of Venezuela, Colombia
and Ecuador.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
MEXICO
authorities that rapidly
developed in resistance to
French rule in the name of
Ferdinand; or to establish
autonomous ruling authorities.
It was the third option that was
adopted by most Creoles, even though
they took care to emphasise that this Mwico°
was a temporary measure until Ferdinand
regained the Spanish throne.
Creoles were, however, dissatisfied with
Spanish rule on two main counts: eommereial
monopoly and political exclusion, both of which
stemmed from attempts fit the second half of rhe ISth
century by the Bourbon kings to extract more revenue from
the colonies. Spain's commercial monopoly hail been
lightened up, gild Spanish Americans were unable to exploit
legally what they perceived as lucrative trading
opportunities in the British and L'S markets. Taxes had been
increased and collection vigilantly enforced. A new system
of colonial administration had been introduced (hat
interfered with well-established informal mechanisms for
allocating power and resources within Spanish American
societies. Bourbon absolutism aimed to strengthen the
position of ptminsiilureti (Spaniards born in Spain) at the
expense of Spanish Americans. By rhe end of the 18th
century, Creoles accounted for a far smaller proportion of
the upper levels of the colonial bureaucracy than in 175(1.
liVltEPEMIKNCE I'HrilH Sl'AIIN
During the first two decades of the I'Jth century there was a
gradually developing sense among elite Creoles in Spanish
America that their interests might best be served by self-
government. This redefinition of their position was enhanced
by an incipient sense of national identity that had been
developing within Creole communities throughout the 18th
century r - an idea of being distinct not only from Spaniards
but also from each other. The political ideas of the French
Enlightenment, although probably less Influential in the
development of independence movements than was (nice
thought, were certainly of importance to some of their
leaders, notably the Venezuelan. Simon Bolivar.
During the 181 Us, as Spain oscillated between reformist
liberalism and absolutism, Spanish Americans first declared,
and then fought for, their independence (tnap 2). Never-
theless, the battles between republicans and royalists
remained fairly evenly balanced until events in Spain during
1S20-21 provided the final catalyst to the creation of a poli-
tical consensus among ereoles that was needed to secure
independence. Once it had Income clear that Spanish tibcr-
alism, which returned to power in 1821, was hem on
restoring the pre- 1808 relationship between Spain and the
American colonies, commitment to independence became
widespread throughout Spanish America - with the excep-
tion of Peru, where memories of the Tupac Amaru rebellion
remained vivid. Peru was eventually liberated in 1824 by
Bolivar's troops, after the retreat of the Spanish had been
initiated by an invasion from the south led by the Argentine
.lose de San Martin, By ]82f> the last royalist troops had been
expelled from South America, and Spain's empire in the
Americas was reduced to Puerto Rieo and Cuba {mttp.l).
Independence from Portugal
Brazil's independence was partly the result of colonial
grievances, although less severe than those felt by Spanish
Americans. However, in overall terms, it was even more
attributable to events in Hurope than was the decoloniza-
tion of Spanish America. The Portuguese monarchy
implemented milder versions of the Bourbon reforms in the
late 18th century, but in general the local elite played a far
greater role in governing Brazil than their counterparts in
Spain's colonics. The main event which triggered an increas-
ing awareness of Brazil's distinct identity was the Portuguese
Prince Regent's establishment of his court in Rio de Janeiro
in 1808, after he had fled from Napoleon's invasion of
UNITED STATES
<;uti hi
CUBA
1907
ft
UNITED PROVINCES
OF CENTRA! AMERICA
1823
-ANTO DOMINGO
l«l
2 ' , PUERTO RICQ
HAITI
Caribbean Seu
rCortfcoca"
fonoma
▼ In a remarkably shorl space of rime.
Iiom 1 81 8 to 1 BIS, ihe Spanish were
ausled from Central and Saulfr America.
leaving only the strongholds al Cuba and
Puerto Rico in the Caribbean. The ruler al
Brazil, Dam Pedro, hod declared in
independence Irom Portugal in
1 822, crowning himself emperor.
A suttesstul revolt in the sourhetn oteo
of The country refilled in an independent
Uruguay in 1828.
"Salvador
RtC do Janeiro
o
o
Portugal. This represented
a shift in political power
from Portugal to Brazil
which was to prove
irreversible. When the
French were ousted from
Portugal in 1814, the
Prince Regent chose to
stay in Brazil, which
was raised to the status
of a kingdom equal to
that of Portugal. As
King John, landowners
resented his bowing to
British pressure to end
the slave trade, while
merchants were unhappy
about increasing British
penetration of the Brazilian
market, but these issues were
causes of disaffection rather than
rebellion. It was attempts by the Portuguese government in
1821 to return Brazil to its pre-1808 colonial status that was
the main cause of its declaration of independence in 1822
under Pedro I - the region's only constitutional monarchy.
Brazil was unique in that it won its independence
largely Without (he damaging consequences of civil war and
economic collapse ihat occurred elsewhere in the region.
In Spanish America mineral production plummeted to less
ihan a quarter of its level before its independence struggles,
industrial output declined by two-thirds, and agriculture by
half. Socially, independence brought relatively little change.
The corporate institutions of Spanish colonialism remained
intact, the Church remained strong, and militarism was
strengthened. Creoles simply lexrk over the property aban-
doned by fleeing Spaniards and established themselves as a
new oligarchy, which regarded the masses with at least as
much disdain as iheir Spanish predecessors had done.
A Simon Bofcrar was mstrurnenlal in the
liberation irom Spanish rule ol much of
South America. However, he lulled in his
attempts to hold together the fepoblk al
Gain Colombia, and died disillusioned.
© THE COLONIZATION OF CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA 1500-1700 pages 122-23 O LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 1830-1914 pages 192-93
LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN
POST-INDEPENDENCE 1830-1914
A In rheyeni&foltowfng independence
mosr raufllritt beranra involved in warc over
- i*'- b^'du 1 ' ■:■;. .'ii'3"H n a as: i h e f ci xbi':
Island; to ihe British in 1 333, bur secured
Patagonia in 1881. Bolh Peru and Bolivia
losl out In Chile in ihe Yfor of the Patilir. in
1 879. surrendering territory rich in nifrales
and, in Bolivia's rase, on aultel In the sen.
1 South America 1830-1914
—
Confederation oi Peru and
Bofae tB3*-39
1885
Dote shay aboWwj
!oiwi!ysl9H)
Primary podia*.
*
timber
rubber
t
roan
•
coHk
*«.
imnanris
sugar
©
cereals
o
teflon
o
nfaao
□
(OOpH
a
mongan«e
m
tm
-
star
#
Ms
v
gun
r4
......
n
aoh
he newly Independent republics of Spanish America
faced formidable challenges of reconstruction in the
years following their wars of Independence. The first
problem was territorial consolidation. Their boundaries
were roughly based on colonial administrative divisions, but
tii .ne was clcarh defined, and nearly all Spanish-American
countries went to war to defend territory at some point
during the l'Jth century [map J ). The only nation on the
continent ilrai o insistently expanded its territory at the
expense of its neighbours was brazil.
FOREIGN INTERVENTION
Foreign powers were active in the
region throughout this period, and
acted as a significant constraint
on the ability of the new
states to consolidate their
sovereignty. Spain was
too weak to do much
beyond defending its
remaining colonial
possessions, but it
fought two wars over
Cuban independence
1 1868-78 and 1895-98)
before IS military inter-
vention in 1898 led to the
Spanish-American War and
the secession of Cuba and
Puerto Kieo to the United Stales.
Following a three-year military
occupation Cuba was declared an
independent republic, albeit with a
clause in its constitution ( the "1'Ialt
Amendment ") stipulating the right of
the USA to intervene in its internal affairs.
Mexico, which achieved independence hi
182 1 following a civil war, subsequently lost large
amounts of territory to the USA. It was briefly ruled by
the Austro-Hungariau, Maximilian von Hahsburg, as
emperor (1864-67), supported by French troops. Britain
had colonies in Guiana and British Honduras, and consoli-
dated its commercial and financial dominance throughout
most of the region, especially in brazil and Argentina.
Kmimimh: dkvki.oi'vjkms
Throughout the I'Jth century Latin American economies
remained dependent on the export of raw materials (mops
/. 2 and 3), continuing patterns of production established in
colonial times. Although (here has been considerable debate
about the wisdom of this policy, in practice they had liltle
choice. The colonial powers had lefi behind scant basis for
the creation of self-sufficient economics, and the indepen-
dent states simply did not have the resources necessary for
such development. Attempts were made to encourage indus-
trialization in Mexico, Colombia and brazil in the lSAOs and
1840a, but they all succumbed to competition from
European imports.
The export of primary products brought considerable
wealth to Latin America, especially once the development of
steamships and railways in the 1860s had modernized
transportation. In the last quarter of the l'/th century Latin
Ann. ilea u vein r\ ucu. auk in benefit In an the . .wrall
expansion in the work) economy fuelled by European and
US demands for raw materials and markets for their manu-
factured goods [pages 20&-9). At the time it made economic
sense for Latin America to exploit its comparative advan-
tage in the world market as a supplier of raw materials.
Although this strategy later proved to be Hawed, it did result
in rapid economic growth and a wave of prosperity among
Latin American elites in what became known as *ia belle
epouue" of Latin American development Ic. 188Q-19I4),
( )n the eve of the First World War. the region was producing
IS per cent of the worlds cereals, AH per cent of its sugar
and 02 per cent of its coffee, cocoa and tea.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
Elitist politics
Politics in 19th-century Latin America was entirely an elite
affair, with electoral contests typically involving at most ten
per cent of the population and dominated by rivalry
between liberals and conservatives. Most of the republics
had adopted liberal constitutions based on that of the
United States, but these were to prove an inadequate blue-
print for the authoritarian reality of Latin American politics.
The major challenge in most countries was to consoli-
date central state authority over remote and often rebellious
areas. Until well into the 1850s local leaders, known as
caudillos, raised armies to fight for their interests, holding
sway over their followers by a combination of charisma,
blandishment and brutality. In these circumstances, many
liberal statesmen found themselves obliged to pursue
distinctly illiberal policies. As the century wore on, Latin
American liberalism, which came to power in most Latin
American countries during the 1850s and 1860s, took on an
increasingly conservative cast. One distinctive legacy of
liberalism was an appreciable reduction in the wealth of the
Catholic Church, particularly in Mexico, although liberals
did not succeed in diminishing the religious devotion of the
majority of the populations.
Social changes
Conditions barely improved for the Latin American masses.
Indeed, American Indians had good reason to feel that their
plight had been less onerous under colonial rule, when they
had at least enjoyed a degree of protection from the Spanish
crown against encroachments on their communal lands. The
attempts of liberal governments to turn Indian peasants into
smallholders by forcibly redistributing their lands left most
Indians worse off, particularly those in Mexico.
Slavery was abolished in Central America as early as
1824 (map 3), and in the Spanish South American republics
during the 1850s (map 1), but it continued in Portuguese-
dominated Brazil, where a weak emperor was reluctant to
antagonize the powerful plantation owners. Brazil did not
pass legislation to end the trade in slaves until 1850 and it
took until 1888 - the year before Brazil declared itself
a republic - for slavery itself to be abolished. Even in
conditions of allegedly "free" labour, however, the lack of
alternative work meant that many former slaves had little
choice but to join a floating rural proletariat, subject to
seasonal work in exchange for pitiful wages.
During the middle part of the 19th century the popula-
tions of most Latin American countries more than doubled
(bar chart), and by the end of the century Latin America's
integration into the world economy was beginning to bring
about changes in the socio-economic structure which
independence had not. Urbanization, industrialization and
their consequences continued from the 1880s onwards. The
late 19th century saw the emergence of a middle class based
Latin American population in 1820 and 1880 (in thousands)
fM
▲ The 19th century saw large population
increases in most Latin American countries.
Many countries experienced a doubling of
their numbers between 1 820 and 1 880,
while the population in the economically
successful Argentina quadrupled.
on professionals and state bureaucrats. Trade unions among
the working classes - most of which were organized by
European immigrants to Argentina or Brazil - first became
active during this period, and public education programmes
were initiated in the larger countries. It was not until after
the First World War, however, that the political conse-
quences of all these socio-economic changes were to
manifest themselves.
San Franciico Q
4>
Pacific
MEXICO
Ipoit 1867)
2 Mexico 1824-67
flotfntary(rfMMirai924 Planar* products:
Ffl*os r iridepsidenHaimblic ; <*| silver
163M5. IB45«! IB Q <onx
I I CkM 1 S45. IBM ■ fcemqm
H Ceded hj traity of Gmxtalijpe Wdolga 1 848 isisol -hems)
\Z3 (edsd TS53 {SodsdHi Pimhase)
1829 Dims slavery nbokM
■ lta"col«47
OZocatacas
r^Guodolojora
afiP
Qulf of Mexico
unif.ii m
— Compii'lii YUCATAN
(
'-/»
A. Mexico was substantially reduced in size
during the mid-1 9th century. It lost Texas to
an independence movement in 1 836 and
California, New Mexico and Arizona after
being defeated in the 1 846-48 war with the
United States. (Mexicans rarely need
reminding that the California Gold Rush
began in 1 849.) Further territory was ceded
in 1 850 and again in 1 853, as a result of
the Gadsden Purchase.
T Most of Central America and the larger
Caribbean islands had gained independence
by 1 91 0. The smaller islands remained
European colonies, while the United States
retained control of Puerto Rico.
UNITED STATES
1S6S
- \
Grrand
Atlantic
B °^
Otilf i>/ Mexico
MEXICO
1M»
O
r
Gfand Cayman
•> %
Cl bam, l~ ijang I
CUBA £i~J J—%"
3 Central America and m
Caribbean
1830-1910
| SriiTsh passessiEtt
Ptmory products:
3 Franth pouter.
# indigo
3 USpoHSMns
w^ couvbqI
~| DuKh presfflsjom
4 limbs
| torch poaesioK
m <tfi*
J898 [toed independent*
^ tjonms
1086 Dnio skwery abolished
O SUOQI
O tobfflm
ufj lute
nboi !■■
j ffifnSH HONDURAS
>lk> Hi
» 1 r ^\m
EL SALVADOR J NICARAGUA
ISJfl 1838
CENTRAL ' -i,
Aff"'" COSTA 9
'"4 ihca k< .
1838 *j
Jamaica
BRITISH
WEST INDIES
1834
DOMMCAN ._,, j. v **
, REPUBLIC *Z? ia ^/..M as "-
Caribbean Sua
St iuf-tcr I ' ***
Cnrtat apenad IP) 4
I PANAMA \
1903 r COLOMBIA
Stlfnnmtf J ,
§ flarfcodos
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VENEZUELA
O INDEPENDENCE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 1780-1830 pages 190-91 © LATIN AMERICA 1914-15 pages 226-27
THE BRITISH IN INDIA
1608-1920
Khoipur
RAJPUTANA
KATMWJAt W
SgrotO
Arabian
.^"v-
BtKAK
Sea
Bombtl,
C .2K
HYDERABAD
1792
A TheeiporKionof Brirhhpowei
in tndio wos pieremeol ll ws fociliioTed by
□ system of 'subsjdiory alfiarice" under whkh
the English East India Company supplied
(coops lo o ruler in return for cash payments
and trading privileges. This gave the
Company control of territories thai remained
formally under the rule ol Indian primes.
CEYLON
ColcraJiag
&>tlP
V The pressures of Be iiish eiporrsion
provoked hostile reo<liom Irom mony
Indian slates, leading lo a number of wars.
The British army rorrsisfed mainly ol Indian
soldiers, known os sepoys, who themselves
mutinied ngoinsl Biilish aulhority in 1357.
This is regarded in India as ihe country's
first tror ol independence
2 txMNsiow of the empire 1805-5*3
AFGHANISTAN )
, SnferirerriiorylflOi tsifl fco of BfHta
/
<^
Bntfsh auMSimns 1 80S - 37 * tiffin of IntaiMgtq 1857
I»M
tWstKOurliiKmlrSjME
if o ISdt
[>smle«Won«r«sl8i8
>v f\ \s\_
CHINA
J 1 yS
-V'ijW
r*
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j^rgfti^K--" LMgTri,-/ /
*v
8 ' B \t&IB<t r^>fl'\CRJfi) C~i\~~^ ll
r*T"
^ )^-^ wl*3pj .-GJeuw Vr\ i^i
•
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ISS3 \ IStM^fl S— ~J \
Aruhinn Bomboy
t^CS. Henna! PKStn
S'i ii
■■-- ■■■'■■>■ /ts»V
Jfr^
\ ' « \
1 '■■
,oi}f\ C 1 Ax*™i (i I ■ A
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J
A /
IMMWCOK
CfYLON Nfmiorh
I7f<s/iau
/ n rf
Ian O G c £r rr
An English East India Company fleet first reached
India in 1608 and, over the course of the next
century, the Company developed its trade steadily
around the coasts of the subcontinent. It quickly estab-
lished trading posts, known as "factories", starting at Surat
in 1619 and followed by Madras in 1634, Bombay in 1674
and Calcutta in 1690.
Although originally entering the "Indies" trade in
pursuit of spices, the Company made most of its fortune
from cotton textiles, whose manufacture was highly
developed in India. However, until the second quarter of
the 18th century, there was little to suggest that the British
presence in India heralded an empire. Europeans in
general were economically outweighed by indigenous
trading and banking groups and were politically
subordinate to the great Mughal Empire (pages 144-45).
The turning point, which was to lead to British
supremacy in India, came only in the mid-18th century
when the Mughal Empire began to break up into warring
regional states, whose needs for funds and armaments pro-
vided opportunities for the Europeans to exploit. Another
factor was the growing importance of the English East India
Company's lucrative trade eastwards towards China, which
enhanced its importance in the Indian economy, especially
in Bengal.
British-French rivalry
Conflicts between the European powers started to spill over
into Asia, with the French and British beginning a struggle
for supremacy that was not finally resolved until the end
of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. In southern India from
1746 the British and French backed rival claimants to the
Nawabi of Arcot. In the course of their conflict Robert
Clive, who rose from a clerkship to command the English
East India Company's armies and govern Bengal, intro-
duced new techniques of warfare borrowed from Europe.
These not only prevailed against the French but opened up
new possibilities of power in the Indian subcontinent.
In 1756 Siraj-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Bengal, reacted
to the growing pretensions of the British by sacking their
"factory" at Calcutta and consigning some of their officers
to the infamous "Black Hole". Clive's forces moved north in
response and defeated Siraj-ud-Daula's army at Plassey in
1757 (map 1). This created an opportunity for the conver-
sion of the Company's economic influence in Bengal into
political power; the defeat of the residual armies of the
Mughal emperor at Buxar in 1764 completed this process.
However, it was to take another 50 years for the British
to extend their dominion beyond Bengal, and a further 100
years for the limits of their territorial expansion to be
established. First, they faced rivalry from other expanding
Indian states which had also adopted the new styles of
warfare, most notably Tipu Sultan's Mysore (defeated in
1799) and the Maratha Confederacy (defeated in 1818). It
was not until the annexation of Punjab in 1849 that the
last threat to the Company's hegemony was extinguished
(map 2). Even after this, the process of acquisition was
continued: smaller states that had once been "subsidiary"
allies were gobbled up and Baluchistan and Burma were
brought under British control, in 1876 and 1886 respec-
tively, as a means of securing unstable borders (map 3).
Nor was political stability within the empire in India
achieved with any greater ease. Most notably, in 1857 the
"Great Mutiny" of Indian soldiers in the Bengal army saw
the British lose control of the central Ganges Valley and
face rebellion in the heartland of their empire.
Effects of British rule
The carrying forward of the imperial project in the face of
so many problems was a reflection of the importance
attached to India by the British. In the course of the 19th
century it became "the jewel in the crown" of the British
Empire, to which it was formally annexed in 1858 when
the English East India Company was dissolved. Although
there was little "white" settlement and most of its economy
STUS OF WQIID HISTORY: PI!! 4
■4 The rapid growth of India's railway
network was an imporlanl (actor in Ids
transition From subsistence forming to
commercial agriculture. As it became easier
to transport produce from tile caunlTyside 10
the ports so the demands ol the British
market for spedfic piodurtt came to he
reflected in the (taps grown. During the
American Civil War (lBul-65),for
example, when the supply of raw American
CDllon to the Lancashire cotton mills dried
up, many Indian farmers switched to cotton
production. When the war ended acid the
milk reverted' to American cotton, the li
market collapsed, leaving formers unable to
return In food production.
and key social institutions remained in indigenous hands,
India was manipulated to yield singular advantages to
Britain. Its most significant role was to supply a large army
which was extensively used for imperial defence around
the world. In addition, India became a captive market for
the products of Britain's industrial revolution, a major
exporter of agricultural commodities and an important area
for the investment of British capital, especially in the
rapidly expanding railway network (map 4).
What effects British rule had on India remains a con-
troversial question. The agricultural economy grew, with
expanding foreign trade and British capital providing the
rudiments of a modern transport infrastructure. However,
the once-great textile industry declined and few other
industries rose to take its place. Ambiguity also marked
British social policy. A strong imperative, especially from
the 1840s onwards, was to "civilize" India along Western
lines, introducing "scientific" education, a competitive
market economy and Christian ethics. However, a conser-
vative view held by some in the British administration in
India warned against disturbing "native" custom. After the
Mutiny, such conservative counsels won out and were
reinforced by a deepening British racism, which denied
equal rights to Indian subjects of the British monarch.
The reactions of Indian society to British rule were
extremely mixed. Some groups mounted a ferocious
defence of their traditional rights, but others responded
positively to what they regarded as modernizing trends,
especially taking up Western education. For such groups,
the racism of the late-Victorian British and their turning
away from earlier liberal ideals proved disappointing and
frustrating. An Indian National Congress had been formed
in 1885 to advance the cause of Indians within the empire.
However, by the early 1900s it had already begun to reject
the politics of loyalism and to express more fundamental
objections. As the shadow of the First World War fell across
the Indian landscape, the British Empire, which had suc-
ceeded in bringing India into the 19th century, was fast
losing its claims to lead it through the 20th. In 1920-22,
shortly after the war, Mahatma Gandhi launched the first of
the mass civil disobedience campaigns which signalled the
beginning of the end of British rule in India.
A As the frontiers of Britain's empire in
India slowly stabilized, over a third of the
subcontinent remained governed by Indian
rulers, although the British used trade and
defence agreements to exert their influence
over these areas.
© INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS 1526-1765 pages 144-45 © SOUTH ASIA SINCE 1920 pages 248-49
SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE AGE
OF IMPERIALISM 1790-1914
ASSAM
EMPIRE
pQanwq '
M ° H " , J hkn 9 K«g
ARAKAN
to Britain 1926
»Ch"na 1*83
" r Batyyun Im
4
TENASSERIM-t
to Sntain I82<S
1852 j
:hakri siam'
peal 1767 I
O&anfltfbk,/
Andaman h
V
.to Britain J7B5>
Andaman
S't-rj
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}B38
, to Irftii'ji 173*
"fhfr finang
' ' SUtTAMAJs PfOvlNCE
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to Nrfti IrMC
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*• Ot^jtm imperial caftU 17711- 1SS4
V , »ft™ncil7S7ondt953
to Franco r 787
in 1795-1X2^1624
fodonffj
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J-3S*
) Autonomous states and colonies
1792-1860
| Spotlit possessicfli
| Ttatypuisi ptsseaiom
| MlfOSSBSWSrWllKlimiT
^] Dutch aquBitos to IliO
| EMripasisiixKviilKipsiiiiHsftilMD
177? Dola oi otijus^n * pmdd (csassJW
(hokri Soti ord ft oreo id mfkience:
3] LovspadklriB nea
. I unMK)HQUn{ (no
■J May muwrom
| fAnlcr* stores i/iea Siamese suzeinmrv
| Slmrmnir:
Nojjm Vitrron on) it <ro at lAience
VM msi-iaUNgurHiMiiiii
^\ lorrspfflkiny orea
Nm Mfl
fr/^ (ratorraKiJWmmssI
Spqrtsh Priilipciires
J orcwrfSuliifiizemnv
"SiiMoHmiarAfwHoiaJi
~^J am if fkrxkj nja front Ittt
GonliiWr^
SiUfcoA
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B6rj*nn ran
J B*JUn T •■
■1* ?Vji P "*' Kton ^ SonpiMBun 1 - '
■GelfjfW-
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r*ss
jb Britain ISt?
taeVtarn ISij
Is Mi IS id
J toSritaei IS
. Sen
A Britain acquired Pinnng (I fSo], Province
Wcllcslcy (1800). Singnporc- (IBs 9> ciivl
Melaka (182-11, which weie corKlrluli-d
(with the addjfion in 1946 of Lobuan in
Borneo! iK the Strait! Settlements in 1 826,
in order in service rfs trade with China, lis
conquests in Lower Burma (allowing the
Sctrand Anglq Burmese War [IBS2) -
including Pegu and the seaports ol
Monobon, 8««in end Rangoon - were
designed to [noted India s eoslem frontier
Meanwhile, the viclwy of Ihe Dutch nvei
Wnhhabi-influenced Muslim reformers in
western Sumalia in the Pndri War
(1 821 —38) enabled tfiem la undertake
limited expansion along the easl and west
consls of Sumolro. Dutch authority was
established in Iambi 1 1 BUI, Indrogjri
!ia38),.5ingkilniidB(tru5(l839-10),bijl
attempts lo move further north were
ihwaried by the combination of the
resurgent power of Ihe Sulfonate of Aceh
and the influence ol the mainly British and
Chinese merchants in the Snails Settlements.
' '■ . Balawia Java tvtor
toSriHim ISi!-IS
Makasarn
toBnlojr t JflJ2
to Nslfi (Slf -
k 17«t-
. 18)7
New G (
UlBI
( l..rivs .Scu
Oomor
t fCfll' il
A'i. fj
tomBoA
'j
Ahrli
' /' Tatiimixir li
SwnbcrwQ
Irmor
JoSrrlbTrt ISit-
lie uutbruiik of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic
Wars in Europe in April 1792 marked the beginning
of a mot% intense European imperial involvement
with .Southeast Asia - an involvement which reached its
peak between IS70 and ]<)14. By then nearly the whole of
Southeast Asia was under European rule, the major
exception being (makri-ruled Siam (modem Thailand).
Ukitisii, Ditch ami Sivwisii i:iii.iiiN[,\i.ts»)
Britain's emergence as the lending commercial and seaborne
power in the region was confirmed after 1705 when its naval
forces, operating from Madras and Pinang in the Strait of
Malacca, captured Dutch liast India Company possessions
throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Uy 1815 Britain
controlled Java and the Spice Islands (Moluccas), and was
soon to establish itself in Singapore ( 1819) and in Arakan
and Tcnasscrim in Lower Burma following the Kirst Anglo-
Burmese War (1824-26) (map / ). Although .lava was
handed back to Holland in 1816, Dutch power in Indonesia
remained totally dependent on British naval supremacy
until ihe Second World War.
Commercially and militarily Britain owed much to
India. British India (pages 194-95) provided the troops for
its colonial conquests in Southeast Asia, and Bengal opium
was the mainstay of Britain's lucrative trade with China
(pages 190-99). Between 1762, when the English East India
Company was granted a permanent trading post in Canton
(tluangzhoti), and the 1820s, when Assam tea production
hegan, total Bengal opium exports increased 1,500 per cent
from 1,400 to 20.000 chests per annum, and exports of
Chinese tea tripled from 7,000 to over 20,000 tonnes.
Britain's interest in Southeast Asia in this period was driven
by its need to find trade goods saleable in Canton in
exchange for tea, and by its desire to protect its sea lanes.
Elsewhere, before the 1860s, European expansion was
slow. Dutch control of fertile .lava was only consolidated
following the bitterly fought Java War (1825-30), and Dutch
finances only improved following the introduction of the
"Cultivation System" (1830-70). This required Javanese
peasants to grow cash crops (mainly sugar, coffee and
indigo) for sale at very low prices to the colonial govern-
ment. By 1877 this had produced 832 million guilders for
the Dutch home treasury, which represented over 30 per
cent of Dutch state revenues. In the Philippines, Spanish
power was cheeked in Muslim-dominated Mindanao and
iSulu by the strength of the local sultans, while on the main
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
island of Luzon, the seat of Spanish colonial authority since
the late 16th century, the emergence of an educated mixed-
race - Filipino-Spanish-Chinese - elite, known as the
ilustrados ("the enlightened ones"), began to challenge the
political predominance of the Iberian-born friars and the
Madrid-appointed colonial administrators.
Southeast Asian resistance
The existence of newly established dynasties and kingdoms,
especially in mainland Southeast Asia, complicated the task
of the European colonialists. From the mid-18th century
onwards Burma, Siam and Vietnam had all experienced
extensive political renewal under the leadership of new
dynasties. This encompassed a revitalization of Theravada
Buddhism and Confucianism; the subjugation of minority
populations to new state-sponsored forms of culture,
religion, language and governance; the development of
Chinese-run revenue farms and commercial monopolies;
and the limited acquisition of Western military technology.
The principal reason for the British annexation of Lower
Burma between the 1820s and 1850s was to check the
expansionist policies of a succession of Konbaung mon-
archs. French involvement in Indochina, which began with
the capture of Da Nang in 1858, was spurred by the anti-
Catholic pogroms initiated by the Vietnamese emperor
Minh-mang (r. 1820-41) and his successors.
The political and cultural self-confidence of the
Southeast Asian rulers went hand in hand with rapid
economic and demographic growth. After a century of stag-
nation, the exports of Southeast Asia's three key
commodities (pepper, coffee and sugar) increased by 4.7 per
cent per year between 1780 and 1820, with Aceh alone
accounting for over half the world's supply of pepper - 9,000
tonnes - by 1824. In the same period the region's popula-
tion more than doubled to over nine million. This meant
that when the Europeans began to move in force against the
indigenous states of Southeast Asia after 1850, they encoun-
tered fierce resistance. It took the Dutch 30 years
(1873-1903) to overcome Acehnese resistance, and when
the British eventually moved into Upper Burma in
November 1885 and overthrew the Konbaung monarchy, it
required another five years of sustained operations to
"pacify" the remaining guerrilla fighters.
In the Philippines the energies unleashed by the emer-
gence of indigenous resistance movements proved too much
for the incumbent colonial administration. Two years
(1896-98) of armed struggle by the ilustrado-led Filipino
revolutionaries brought the Spanish administration to its
knees and facilitated the intervention of the United States,
which acquired the Philippines from Spain in the Treaty of
Paris (December 1898). However, three more years were to
pass before the military forces of the Philippine Republic
were finally subdued in a series of bitter campaigns which
required the deployment of over 60,000 American troops.
Nationalist movements
Apart from the Chakri monarchs in Siam (whose power
lasted until 1932) none of the Southeast Asian dynasties
survived the height of Western imperialism intact (map 2).
Instead, new Western-educated elites emerged to take their
place, eventually demanding political rights and recognition
of what they saw as legitimate nationalist aspirations.
Between 1906 and 1908 the foundation of the Young
Men's Buddhist Association in Rangoon and the "Beautiful
Endeavour" (Boedi Oetomo) organization of Javanese
medical students in Batavia (Jakarta) led to the develop-
ment of more radical forms of nationalism. In Vietnam this
took the form of the anti-French agitation of the "Confucian
scholar activists", such as Phan Chu Trinh and Pham Boi
Chau, both of whom advocated the use of violence against
the colonial state. Meanwhile, Japan's victory over tsarist
Russia in 1904-5 (pages 200-1) had given the lie to the
myth of Western superiority. The fact that Western colonial
authority rested for the most part on very small numbers of
troops and armed police - 42,000 for a population of 62
million in the case of the Dutch in Indonesia - made it vul-
nerable both to external attack and internal subversion. The
rise of Japanese militarism during this period and the emer-
gence of increasingly well-organized Southeast Asian
nationalist movements sounded its death knell.
▲ Prince Diponagara (1785-1855), leader
of the Javanese lories against the Dutch in
the Java War ( 1 825-30), attempted to
restore Javanese control of the island and to
enhance the role of Islam. Widely revered
as a Javanese "Just King", he ended his
days in exile in Celebes (Sulawesi).
T The heyday of Western imperialism in
Southeast Asia was brief, but it left a
problematic legacy. Ihe introduction by the
colonialists of Western-style bureaucracies,
education, capitalist means of production
and communications systems - especially
the telegraph (which was introduced into
Southeast Asia in 1 870-71 ), railways and
steamships - led to the demise of older
monarchical forms of authority and the rise
of Western-educated, nationalist elites.
'...tepi'rcr.'iTDm J 902
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-.
.Canton a ft A-ci
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(NDpCHINA
W
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Babuyan h
Luzon \> 4
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I
(Mindaro
Nhahark
. fmm DenmOric
to Britain 1S69
BmnrJa Aceli£j-. _ Pinang h
\
Batu h)~
Siberiit
Jaffa
1867-1902
hW^t}}r\rJoCrmhn /
1863/*' ;■■.
undtr Sam BsqMlfy » 1 909 - ^
«rib* feMbrtafc itip? V^ .. HUT1SH
j&*W.|wf, mouth j^ J)
wi ' : ■• / ^ 1 ~ *
fac tfi c
O L' II II
\
Caroline h*.
from Spain IDGennany IffPSt'
loGarmxTf
2 The High Colonial Age 1 S 70-1 914
■
Dukli pGaasiofe
■
f fflXh DOSS&SiHS
□
Fro-rth Pieo of cifkjerne 1S98
■
Portuguese ptrssesswrs
Gsmon posssssiryis
United Stares possession
■
Hi fish possessions
\~ I
British oreo of influence t994
□
Straits Sefltenieii*
Malay Stores widflr ftrirtsh Prarectwute:
□
F«taalHHr(!*rlB95
□
unlederatot
1899
T« of Mqurfltiffll Of (Kfi«l 0* pOSSKSOfl
■ :..
k.&auim-\m
1332 top/fon Highkindi br nughr under Ekihch cmUd
\m-m
Mnn submorira tefegropli table
iipgfali-Arrfi ' ■-? & o r n e o 1 ^ ^
UtynU
loiri&is---
Celebes
tywhaifi—"'*'
* :
WbUMigg
I n d i a u
O v c a n
ittaria
Yogpakn
J a b a ^,$ca\
^
-\bawa rim fi&gr f s
Hit
bn ,ii
-tendril
1 Wirnor
uicuui Arnhm
1 859/ WOt
—
O EUROPEANS IN ASIA 1500-1790 pages 118-19 © SOUTHEAST ASIA SINGE 1920 pages 250-51
LATE MANCHU QING CHINA
1800-1911
i> The Firs! Opium Wor wos Hie Sritish
response to attempts by the Cling rulers to
restrict 'rose 10 (He government-monitored
custom house of Canton (Guangrhou! ■■ -ii
to ban the damaging import ol opium.
British g unships bombarded Chinese ports
along the hill length ol its c trail in 1940 and
again in 184)— 42. even venturing up ltie
YnngtM to Nanjing, unril Ihe Chinese agreed
peace terms which allowed lot the opening
up at "treaty ports" [mop J], Not satisfied
with the outcome, however, Ihe British
joined lorces with the French in I B56 10
mod further roraessions in the 5e<ond
Opium War. China was defeased again by
the French in 1885, and lost control of
Koreo to the Japanese in 1895.
1 Wars against China)840-°5
inslQjillwWviWW!-
— *■ Burnt] tillu:h Jl.il-— b-epl 1 340
— •- birhh ahlpcks Auy 1)M I— Oah 1J143
SermtOpiuinWtirlBSt-Sfr
— ►■ ifulo-FreKh nrratks i3cr 18S7-*lo» iai6
— ■> taLj»hHKtienahJaK-«L9l859
InjW urdi Minis Moth-Oct 1 ttt)
SnurF'OTliWni IBS 3-35:
— 1» fundi Mods Dec 1183-Aiii 1 IBi
— »■ [hniHuatucks 1 BB3-B4
Sinu-raponeseWarlM+^S:
— *■ kjooness onnelLi Sepr 1$94-Mur 1*95
ntMnid bounojy
MONGOLIA
FENGT1AN
i^^Hoicbeng
r
■,
CHINA'S TRADE DEFICIT WITH India
[hen-yeai uveiorje, in millions ol pounds.
— ratal value of impurti tram India
- — Krtel sfliue at orjiun imparrod
(oral infcje ol emoffs 10 incki
hjim ( 'hiiiu
Sea
A Throughout lt» period 1800-37 the
tolol value af imports From the English fosl
India Company increased steadily, while
Chinese exports remained fairly ilatk.
Opium imports grew during this period,
leading ihe Chinese to impose restrictions
and the British to use force in order to
protect their market. Frjfkrwng the
deleal ol China in the Opium War af
1 840-42, Ihe value el opium imported
more than doubled.
P* During the Sino-Japanese War of
1 894-95 the Chinese defenders wBre easily
overcome by the more modern weaponry of
the invading Japanese. As a result ol its
defeat, China was forced to rede the island
af lofwon to Japan.
The 19th century was a turbulent period for China,
during which the Western powers posed an ever-
increasing threat to the sovereignty of the Manchu
dynasty. With most of Smith and Southeast Asia already cot-
oiiizixl, China represented the final target in the Asiati world.
China had enjoyed sizeable surpluses in trade with the
West sinee the 17th century, exporting increasing amounts
of raw materials - in particular tea, sugar and raw silk - in
the face ol growing competition from Japan and India.
However, it had also become economically dependent on the
West, as it had few precious metals and needed the inflow of
silver from foreign trade to facilitate the expansion of its
internal trade. In 1760 the Manehu (Jing government had
restricted the activities of foreign traders to just four ports,
thus facilitating the collection of duties from these traders.
By the late 1 8th century this had led to a system under
which Canton (Guangzhou) was the sole port for foreign
trade and all activities had to gu through the government-
monitored chartered trading houses (cn/ttiruj). Westerners
attempted, hut failed, to persuade the Cling government to
reform its restrictive policies, and it became clear that such
policies could not he shaken off by peaceful means as long
as Qing sovereignty remained intact.
TiikOi'iim W\rs
Western traders soon found ways to get around the cohunaj
system, and smuggling was widely practised. More signifi-
cantly, the British discovered an ideal commodity to sell in
China: opium. In the China-India-lsritaiu trade triangle,
China's tea exports w\:re no longer offset by silver bullion but
by opium, and from the beginning of the l*Jth century a
balance of trade rapidly developed in favour of the l-mglish
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
J The Taiping Rebellion
1851-64
km ayinalad hv nbeK (. 16(1
fefoante of Toifiing
rebels 1851-53
UnaiHessM norltwn
expedlran 1153-54
A*rtra of fling Itki[k 1664
Mara si Wsrem taps 1 641
Directi&n of retiens
of (ebeb 1A64
;
▲ During the Taiping Rebellion the ding
lost control of much of China's most fertile
region, resulting in a 70 per cent drop in tax
revenues. The ding army was largely
unsuccessful against the rebels, which were
only crushed with the aid of Western troops.
East India Company (graph). China's hard-earned silver
began to flow out in large quantities, causing severe deflation
in the economy. The Manchu Qing, who did not want to see
the resulting loss of tax revenue, responded by imposing a
total ban on the opium trade. This triggered the invasion, in
1840, of British gunships, against which the Qing armed
forces proved to be no match. The First Opium War (map 1)
came to an end in 1842 when, under the Treaty of Nanjing,
the victorious British secured the lifting of the ban on the
opium trade and the opening up to trade of the "treaty ports"
(map 2). The state monopoly was over.
The events of 1840 heralded the end of China as a world
power in the 19th century. British and French allied forces
extracted further concessions from China in the Second
Opium War in 1856-60 (map 1), while the Russians
annexed around 1 million square kilometres (386,000 square
miles) of Chinese Siberia north of the River Amur, and
further territory in Turkestan. Furthermore, China's control
over its "vassal states" in Southeast Asia was weakened when
Annam became a French colony after the Sino-French War
in 1883-85, and China was forced to relinquish control of
Korea after the Sino-Japanese War in 1894-95 (map 1).
These successive military and diplomatic defeats cost the
Chinese Empire dearly in terms of growing trade deficits and
of mounting foreign debts, mainly incurred by war repara-
tions. China was forced to adopt what amounted to a
free-trade policy. By the end of the 19th century a series of
treaties had resulted in the country being largely divided up
by the foreign powers (map 2). Although China remained
technically independent, its sovereignty was ruthlessly
violated - a situation that led to the anti-foreign, anti-
Christian Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901.
Internal strife
Partly as a result of the numerous concessions made to the
foreign powers, there was an upsurge in nationalism and in
the widespread antipathy to the Qing rulers, who originated
from Manchuria and were therefore not considered
"Chinese". In the struggle for their own survival, the Qing
rulers leaned increasingly towards the West, relying on
Western troops, for example, to help suppress the Taiping
Rebellion (map 3). However, while employing the support
of the West delayed the demise of the Manchu Qing govern-
ment for half a century, in the long term it proved a fatal
strategy. In 1911 the Nationalists, who until then had been
only loosely organized, rose up in armed rebellion (map 4).
The revolution began in Hankou on 10 October 1911, and
although the Qing troops recaptured the city on 27
November, the movement to secure independence had by
-
2 Foreign spheres of influence and treaty ports
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4 The 191 1 Revolution
||] too lotmolW b( Notmskss n end gf 1 1 1 1
a KarnnoliM leorae eiioblshed 1 0-3 1 Oci
• Nnnonotst legn* ttH6ltihfid 1 Wpv— 31 Dec
this time already spread across southeast and central China.
Bowing to pressure from the Western powers, whose trading
interests were likely to be disrupted by civil war, the Qing
emperor signed a truce with the rebels on 18 December,
which stipulated his abdication and the elevation of his
general, Yuan Shikai, to the position of President. The inde-
pendent provinces recognized Nanjing as their new capital,
and elected the Nationalist leader Sun Yat-sen as provisional
President on 1 January 1912, although he stepped down on
14 February in favour of Yuan Shikai.
▲ By the end of the 19th century China
was effectively "carved up", with all its
major ports and trading centres allocated by
treaty to one or other of the major Western
powers. In order to ensure a constant supply
of goods for trading, the Western powers
also exercised their influence over large
areas of the Chinese hinterland. In addition,
Britain was granted a lease on the territory
of Hong Kong and the Portuguese gained
the territory of Macau.
•4 The 1911 revolution started with the
Nationalists seizing control of Hankou on
1 October. Similar uprisings in most of the
major cities then followed rapidly. Only in
the northeast, and in the province to the
southwest of Beijing, were rebellions
successfully put down by Qing troops.
Following the truce of 18 December,
Emperor Xuantong abdicated, and control of
Beijing passed to General Yuan Shikai. The
Nationalists subsequently established their
capital in Nanjing.
© MTNG AND MANCHU QING CHINA 1368-1800 pages 138-39 © THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA 1911-49 pages 224-25
THE MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN
1867-1937
[. r-jHrotfii
1 URBArfllATION, INDIWRIMIIATION AND MODERN PREFECTURES
PowiAmin IMG
PflHHimgB erf »«king poMdtion in TOnufKTtmng
■ mm 1 million
and ssrviireslni 1930-
• 500.QQ0-I rr*«i
■ On BOS
□ <0-SO\
□ lOO.MHl-SM.OaD'
1 M-fflft
| 30 -(OS
)00,OIB-2M],fJOu
| J SO-M*
] bsstnmi3Wt
Otanf-'
Holcodor*
Kyuthu
A k part of the plan to modernize Japan
after the restoration of the emperor In
) 867. the feudal domains iwte abolished
and replaced by tentmlly odminislered
prefectures. By 1930 ihe economy had
been transformed into one characterized by
urbanization and indcislrialtzotion.
P
Hokkaido
/
Honthu
T Japanese acquisitions in ihe (arte 19lh
and early 20lh (enluries included the
(or ton Peninsula and ihe island ol Taiwrjn.
both of wfiith provided raw materials far the
industrializing Japanese economy. In 1931
Japan added to its overseas possessions by
advancing into Manchuria,
RUSSIA
[Soviet Union
fom 19211
SatrWin
South
Sotrwlm,
[KorafutoJ
(IPOS)
MANCHUKUO
'•^;
I Vladivostok
/
Otonij
HoWaido
Sed <•/
Wl|ing
Tion,m° (*>«m. ..
'*>* ,^l KOREA *.**«* iro •'"'"
CHINA
->»J G*»V">0
Qir>gdoo
IH/iib Q Mokpo a ^
Nonjfi
n„ng.
O Shanghai
Nagasaki --
Honshu
jnKogoihimo
i'asf
C/tina
Sea
^
*>
/
fescadona
Islands
TAIWAN
(FORMOSA)
Trcprtp/Con,
3 Acquisitions overseas 1870-1933
| Japanese Empire 1870
| Terntoiy acquired 1 674 -9$ Mini date
{Wj Iwilori around 1 905-1 D nil* dale
kVI bpin»«ujnricn I41B-22
I I Wanchutuo 1 ?32
3 DgmMitaad iww ill Tonoku Lute 1933
K Sm brine 1TO
The collapse of the Tokugawa regime in 1867 initiated
a period of momentous change in Japan, in which
society, the economy and politics were transformed.
After more than 200 years of isolation, in (he 20th century
Japan emerged nuto the world stage as a major power.
The new leaders believed thai tu achieve equality Willi
the nations of the West. Japan had to pursue an aggressive
foreign policy, and for this it needed a viable and modern
military capability, backed up by a modem industrial sector.
It would be a mistake to exaggerate the role of the state in
the transformation of Japan into a modem industrial power.
However, the government played a leading role in setting the
tone for change and in laying the framework within which
non-government enterprises could take the initiative,
A NEW CONST1TI THIN
The new government moved swiftly, rapidly disbanding the
old caste hierarchy, abolishing the domains (jxt&es 140-A1 1,
and tiding the country from the centre through a system of
prefectures {map 1 .). All this was done in the name of the
emperor, who had been the focus of the anti-Tokugawa
movement. However, disagreement within the new ruling
oligarchy, and problems in dismantling the social, economic
and political structures of the Tokugawa government, meanc
that the new imperial constitution did not take effect until
1890. The constitutional structure arrived at involved main-
taining a balance of power between the various elites: the
emperor, the political parties within the diet (legislative
assembly), the privy council, the military and the
bureaucracy. This system remained in place until 194 5,
with different groups dominant within it at different times.
Democratic participation was limited. Universal male
suffrage was not granted until 1925, women were barred
from political life, and there were draconian restrictions on
labour activity as well as on ideologies and organizations
deemed to be potentially subversive. The concept of the
"family state" was promoted, according to which the
emperor - said to be descended from ancient deities - was
the benevolent patriarch of the Japanese. Any eritieism of
the "emperor-given" constitution was regarded as treason.
Three emperors reigned under this constitution: the
Meiji Emperor (r. 1867-1912), who became identified
with the national push for change; the Taisho Emperor
(r. 19)2-26), who was mentally impaired and made no
lasting impact; and the Shows Emperor (llirohito), who
took user as regent from his father in 1921, and reigned in
bis own right from 1926 until his death in 1989.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
Modernization of the economy
In their efforts to compete with the West, Japan's leaders
studied and imitated Western economies, borrowing ideas
as they saw fit. The legal and penal systems and the
military were all remodelled along Western lines. Financial
and commercial infrastructures were "westernized", and
transport networks were improved; railway mileage, for
example, expanded rapidly (map 2 and graph). A system
of compulsory education was implemented from the turn of
the century. Agricultural output (based on rice) increased
substantially, and then levelled off from the First World War
(1914-18) onwards, but there was sustained growth in com-
mercial agricultural products, especially silk cocoons.
Up to 1914 manufacturing remained largely focused on
handicraft production of traditional products for the domes-
tic market, which in turn enabled capital accumulation for
the growth of larger-scale, mechanized production. By the
end of the Meiji period, factory-based silk reeling and cotton
spinning were both major export industries, and the first
heavy industrial plants had been established. The First
World War gave a major boost to manufacturing growth, and
after 1918 the industrial structure was transformed. By
1930 the percentage of the population in many prefectures
working on the land or in fishing had fallen substantially
(map 1). The relative contribution of agriculture to the
Gross National Product had declined dramatically. The
service sector had grown, and light industry (especially tex-
tiles), while remaining crucial in exports, had been
gradually overtaken by heavy industry.
During the 1920s and 1930s some industrial sectors
came to be dominated by business groupings called
zaibatsu, who controlled multiple enterprises and huge
assets. Some zaibatsu came under fierce attack in the wake
of the Depression (1929-33), when falling prices and general
instability brought agricultural crisis in some areas, and
increasing internal political conflict. Despite the growth of
the Japanese economy in the 1930s, living standards were
squeezed and the distribution of benefits was unequal.
Japan and the world
One of the most pressing concerns of the new government
was to rid the country of the "unequal treaties" imposed on
Japan by the Western powers towards the end of the
Tokugawa period. These treaties, forcing Japan to open its
ports to trade with the West, had been an important
contributory factor in the collapse of the Tokugawa regime.
Japan eventually achieved a revision of the treaties in 1894,
and in 1902 an alliance was concluded with Britain.
Relations with her neighbours were rarely harmonious,
however, as Japan gradually encroached on their
sovereignty (map 3). Conflict with China over interests in
Korea brought war between the two countries in 1894-95,
resulting in a Japanese victory and the acquisition of Taiwan
(Formosa). Tension with Russia culminated in the war of
1904-5. Although the Japanese victory was less than clear-
cut, it gave Japan a foothold in Manchuria and the freedom
to annex Korea as a colony in 1910. In all its overseas terri-
tories, but particularly in Korea, Japanese rule was harsh.
After the First World War (1914-18) the League of Nations
mandated the former German colonies of the Caroline,
Marshall and Mariana islands (except for Guam) to Japan.
Relations with China remained tense as Japan sought to
obtain increasing concessions in the wake of the 1911
Revolution, and to strengthen her control of Manchuria,
regarded by the Chinese as an integral part of China's
territory (pages 224-25). In 1927 Japanese troops in
Manchuria were involved in the murder of a leading warlord,
and in 1931 engineered an "incident", in the wake of which
the Japanese army, acting initially without the sanction of
Tokyo, occupied the territory. The following year the puppet
state of Manchukuo was established. Tension between Japan
and China finally erupted into full-scale war in 1937.
< In the Battle of Tsushima Strait in May
1 905 (map 3) the Russian fleet was
overwhelmed by the Japanese under the
command of Admiral Heihachiro Togo.
Russian losses of men and ships vastly
exceeded those of the Japanese and as a
result of this humiliation, and other losses
on land, the Russians conceded defeat in
September 1905.
GROWTH OF RAILWAY MILEAGE
1872-1942
20.50C
■i.OCO
iC.COJ
E.con
National railway
^^— Private lofooys
Streetcars (trams)
▲ The nationalization of much of the
railway system in 1 906 more than trebled
the extent of Japan's state-owned lines.
T The rapid development of a railway
network was one feature of the dramatic
changes in transport and other parts of the
infrastructure that occurred from the 1 870s.
.' i
2 Growth of the railway network
Extwr of rnDpr railways 1 B93
Major nddihara ra tetany system:
1SK-ITO
lWHJZt)
mo-mo
© TOKUGAWA JAPAN 1603-1867 pages 140-41 O THE WAR IN ASIA 1931-45 pages 234-35
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AUSTRALIA AND
NEW ZEALAND SINCE 1790
T Early exploration of Australia and New
Zealand was confined to the coastline, which
was explored and charted by James Cook in
the 1 8th century and, at the beginning of
the 19th century, by separate expeditions
around Australia under the leadership of
Matthew Flinders from Britain and the
Frenchman Nicholas Boudin. In the mid-) 9th
century explorers ventured into Australia's
inhospitable interior. Without the survival
techniques of the Aboriginal population
many perished from lack of water (most
famously, Burke and Wills). In New Zealand,
however, Dieffenbach and Brunner both
took Maori guides, who were largely
responsible for the white men's survival.
The history of both Australia and New Zealand long
predates the arrival of Europeans in the late 18th
century. Australia had been inhabited by its Aboriginal
population for around 60,000 years, while New Zealand had
been home to the Polynesian Maori (who called it Aotearoa)
for around 1,000 years. During the 17th century Dutch
explorers charted the western and northern coasts of
Australia, and in 1642 Abel Tasman sighted Van Diemen's
Land (later Tasmania) and followed the coastline of New
Zealand (map 1). In 1769-70, during his first Pacific voyage,
James Cook charted the coast of New Zealand and landed on
the eastern coast of Australia, which he claimed for Britain.
The first British colony was founded at Port Jackson
(Sydney) in January 1788, with the arrival of around 750
convicts, guarded by just over 200 marines and officers.
(Over the subsequent 60 years a further 160,000 convicts
would be shipped out to penal colonies established all round
the eastern and southern coasts.) As the land immediately
around Sydney was unsuitable for agriculture, the colony
relied heavily on intermittent supplies of foodstuffs shipped
out from England throughout the 1790s.
The growing economy
Initially, economic activity in Australia was confined to
whaling, fishing and sealing, but in the early 1820s a route
was developed to the inland plains and, with access to vast
expanses of pastoral land, newly arrived free settlers turned
to sheep-rearing. The wool they exported to Britain became
the basis of Australia's economy, and further colonies based
on this trade were established over the next three decades
in Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia and Queensland.
The ever-increasing demand for pasture brought the set-
tlers into conflict with the Aboriginal population. As well as
seizing land and using violence against the Aborigines, the
settlers carried with them alien diseases such as smallpox
and influenza. These imported diseases had disastrous con-
sequences for the indigenous population, whose numbers
certainly declined (to an extent that can only be estimated)
and would continue to do so until the 1930s (bar chart).
Large-scale immigration of non-convict, mainly British,
settlers accelerated from the 1830s, as more agricultural ter-
ritory was opened up (map 2). It was further encouraged by
gold strikes in the 1850s. The development of overseas trade,
dependent on coastal ports, and the expansion of mining
industries helped to foster an increasingly urban society.
Australia's population grew dramatically from 405,000 in
1850 to 4 million by the end of the century.
The Australian colonies developed political systems
based on that in Britain, and most became self-governing
during the 1850s. The creation of the Commonwealth of
Australia in 1901 promoted freer trade between the states
within this federation and facilitated a joint approach to
defence. However, one of the first measures taken by the
Commonwealth was to adopt the "white Australia policy",
designed to exclude non-white immigrants.
White settlers in New Zealand
New Zealand was initially treated by the British as an
appendage of New South Wales. It only became a separate
colony following the controversial Treaty of Waitangi in 1840,
which provoked decades of conflict between the white
settlers and the Maori, mainly because the treaty, which gave
sovereignty to Britain, was not clearly translated for the Maori
chiefs who agreed it. While the Maori population declined, the
settler population grew dramatically during the second half
of the 19th century. Wool and gold formed the basis of the
colony's economy, and with the invention of refrigerated ship-
ping in the 1870s the export of meat became increasingly
important (map 3). Tension over land triggered the Maori
Wars of 1860 to 1872, after which large areas of Maori land
were sold or confiscated by the government.
New Zealand evolved quickly to responsible government,
and a central parliament, including Maori representatives, was
established in 1852. By 1879 the country enjoyed almost uni-
versal male suffrage, and women obtained the vote in 1893.
In 1907 New Zealand became, like Australia, a self-governing
dominion within the British Empire, although its economy
remained heavily dependent on British markets.
Breaking ties with Britain
Until the 1950s both Australia and New Zealand retained
close political ties with Britain, fighting alongside Britain in
the two world wars. Britain's inability to defend the region
adequately during the Second World War, however, encour-
aged both countries to enter into defensive arrangements
with the United States, leading to the ANZUS Pact of 1951.
^7?
1 Exploration oi Australia and
Hjw Zealand 1606-1 874
1853 ftftwIansmBtaoWw
A Psdcolonr
ftuta mund toast by
loTOsliOi-W
— *■ femm T642-43
LmpHltn-ITQD
— »■ l»U»«-7fJ
— «■ Flinders ISO) -3
— *■ Baudm 1802-3
Routes rakeri In Australia by:
— » Mt»l!l8
--» swim-M
- EvnlMIMl
—*■ LiidMilBM-45
— * SlwtltM-IS
At Gregory 1S55-H
« > BwtsmdWfclSiu-i!
--► SHnrrlBM-42
--»■ Wotbumm H72-7J
--*■ I and A. Fonssr 1B7J
tons Mil in Km Zealand by.
— » Mated) 1339-40
--«- 5*l*ynl8«
--*■ aiunmr and ilehu IJH6-*!
--*■ Hgrpeiltltf
ATUS OF WOULD HISTOtY: PUT 4
Australia's Aboriginal population
^^rne I
tropic nl Capricorn
.Grooli
Cyiandl
Great Sandy
Desert
NORTHERN **
TERRITORY
f PH to Comn*ixiVh*jilr*i of Auifna'jo
a
Q Al ice Springi
COMMONWEALTH OF
Proclaim 9 8 1 90 I
WESTERN ■ "—
AUSTRALIA
Igsfl Great Victoria
Desert
m
a
>
-4 Australia's economy expanded during
the I9lh centory as territory in the east wns
opened up to duity forming nnd. In
□uecnslond. to sugoi cultivation. The success
of the colony ol South Austmliu found td in
1836, was bused on wool ond groin
production, and by the- I Bids wheat hod
betome on rninorlQiil eiport product. Such
tubralion, hawo™, conltibuled to ihe huge
decline in ihe Aboriginul papulation.
Aop«
fv
"QUEENSLAND %.
Pf #<*>
G.r7a, '**
Artesian . ■- " Q
Bosfn 4
AUSTRALIA
SOUT
AUSTRALIA—
1S55 •*
lie'
b°<
Pic
2 Economic development of Australia
too serried: isss Doifl «f star™ ocJilrmnj
I I78B-1B30 self-ga^Brnmeni
"2 1831-75 fUnygjilt.
U 5374— 1900 bstomlM)
^ nfttr I9O0 1JDO-5D
flniinilliinil prwllKh
^ bsef cmHi
Fib dairy cotts
p* sseep
O sugar cone
Syinbgk in ■ im nng
BstooMietl betas l?0Q
Symbols in ■ i.iuki
estabfehed nftar 1 TOO
an &om
BS SI*
* Cool A Manganese
ft ikl A Nickel
• • Inn ..■:•:■ ■ ;iri
♦ Bouiile a a Tb
D Copper • Urerutim
■ Lend O Dinmoftds
r] Pbnl™d r 9** MaJbapSP ^ T Ahhaugb New Zealand's economy
suffered during ihe collapse in commodity
prices in the 1 8110s and eorly 1890s, the
1 govemmenl borrowed heavily to subsidize
public works, including the roilwoy syslem.
These measures encouraged immigration
and led lo a decline in the proportion ol ihe
population who were Maori - trend thai
was reversed somwhal after the 1 930s.
TASMANIA
I £55
Economic ties with Britain also declined alter ]'M5,
especially once Britain joined the European Economic
Community in 1973. Australia and New Zealand have
increasingly focused on economic diversification and in
developing ties with the L'uited States, Japan and other
countries of the "Pacific Rim" (pages 342— J.J).
>l MiKI AMI AflclIUCHNAL RIGHTS
One of the most important recent political developments has
been campaigns in both New Zealand and Australia to
achieve fairer treatment tor the Maori and Aborigine] popu-
lations. A cultural reawakening among the Maori was evident
by the beginning of the 20th century (in the Ratana move-
ment), and Maori political campaigning began in earnest in
the l l >20s and l'J.IOs. Participation in the Second World War,
urbanization and reviving population figures (bar chart)
helped strengthen Maori assertiveness, and in the l'JTOs leg-
islation was introduced to address grievances dating back to
the Treaty of Waitangi. It took another 2(1 years and further
protests, however, before any land was returned to the Maori,
most of whom inhabit North Island.
Australia's Aborigines had begun to assert their identity
and demand an end to discrimination during the 1930s, but
it was not until 1°07 that they won equal citizenship. In the
early l**70s (he federal authorities began to promote the
return of land to Aboriginal communities, but although the
number of Aborigines is rising, they remain the most dis-
advantaged sector of Australian society.
3 Economic developmiht
of New Zealand
Aran seited
IS oy 1830
J 1831-75
J iira-i™
| ief*™
Syrnbcfc n ■ : economic oenviry
sscnbferwri try 1 BSCb
Syrnoofe in ■ ; economic activity
esioblshodlBBO-mrj
O a Gctdrnimop
■ Coillrliiriilig
U Hydroelectric cower
O fljuininwm smelling
M* Simp firming
^ Dory fanning
k k limbs
(ailmjbi*
WnelTOQ
--- 1WM-30
Population since 1 881
I 1 Mum potion
—
Mr*P ■'
a .
I*
- * a a
*> ""barn.
TWrrnjrj
Wwpor, . " 4 Ot U
South JT3
hl and □" -
' / ( c
e c
« n
O AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC 10,000 i«:-.\i) l(MH( pages 26^27
AFRICA
1800-80
i* In the mid- 1 9m century Europeon
tirjden operoied from bout on the coosl
supplied with (foods by die Mrkoo troding
network. In the south The dom'monl Zulu
notion roused the dispersal of other elhnir
groups Irvoughoui the region.
1 Principal Afrkan
and European trading
routes c.l 840
Aims tgrtMM Iff imHtfiicor. po*«cs;
~^\ Omm
■|-:m
2] On-mcn Empire
iKr? ikon store atdim jrajp
Jlfrtoi Hoot route
— »■ Mhom wnhN nd mpliiiiDn
Skrrernore
— *- RrwfeofYoortrtHLerslirjMOs
A The city of Timbuktu served (or centuries
os o trading post lor Irons So liar-jn
caravans By the 19th century It had
declined In importance but was slill a focus
of furiosity lot Europeans, far whom travel
In ihe region was made dangerous by
Muslim onrli|Mlhy to Christians. In 1 853-54
the German explorer fieirrrkh Earth spent
some time ihere in the course ol on
extensive expedition [map 31, and the
lustration above was published in his
account of his travels.
mtf-t*
ANGOLA
At the beginning of
the I*)th century the
interior of the African con-
tinent was little known to outsiders,
although there had been contact with
the wider world since antiquity, espe-
cially through trading activity. The
North African coastal region was firmly
integrated into Mediterranean trading
systems, while well-established trans-
Saharan trading routes (mttp J ), based
on exchanges of slaves, salt, gold and
cloth, secured the dominance of Islam
from the north coast to West Africa.
As the century progressed, trade in
West Africa continued to be orientated to
the north, but the Atlantic slave trade,
initiated by the Portuguese in the ]f>rh
century, became an increasing focus of
economic activity. It is estimated that over 12
million slaves were despatched to ihe Americas
between 1450 and 1870, of whom a quarter
were exported during the 1'Jth century. The
political, social and economic reverberations of
European competition for slaves along the west
and central African Atlantic coast extended far into
the interior. Slaves were exchanged for firearms, metal
goods, beads and other manufactured goods. With the
formal abolition by Britain of the slave trade in 1807 (and
despite the defiance by other European countries of this ban
for many years after), ivory, rubber, palm oil, cloth, gold and
agricultural products assumed ever greater importance as
trading commodities.
In East Africa trading activities were somewhat less
developed, as was urbanization and the formation of states.
Nevertheless, Indian Ocean ports such as Mombasa,
Bagamoyo, Kilwa and Quelimane were important in
bringing Bantu-speaking Africans into commercial contact
with Arabs. Indians and Portuguese (mot) 1 ). The slave
trade in this region remained relatively unaffected by its
formal illegality until the latter part of the 19th century.
ENCROACHMENTS BY EUROPEANS
At the Stan of the 19th century the European presence in
Africa was largely restricted to the coastal regions of
northern, western and southern Africa. The French
invaded the Algerian coast in 1 8.10 and also established a
KIKUYU ^
MmiilftjM
3
Cope fcrwny
presence on the west coast. Spain had
been in control of the Moroccan ports of ( kiura and
Melilla since the 16th century*. The Portuguese were in
possession of large parts of Angola and Mozambique, In
West Africa, British interests were expanding into the
hinterland from the slave-trading regions of present -day
Sierra Leone. Nigeria and Chana. British influence in the
region was consolidated after 1807, when the Royal Navy
took on the role of enforcing an end to the slave trade and
merchants extended the domain of legitimate commerce.
A major area of British expansion was in Southern Africa.
where the Cape Colony was wrested from Dutch control in
180fi. The frontiers of this settler society expanded
throughout the 19th century and a second British colony.
Natal, in the east of the region, was established in 1845.
African politics
Dynamic changes occurred, sometimes intensified by
European contact, at other times with little reference to
encroachment from the outside. In southern Africa the
rn/ecrrrie migrations, occasioned by the rise of the Zulu state
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
"^ ■--.:.■ ■■,-'■
• '. <^e
Caire-.
. ^C\„.
3 European kploration
tM il
— *• Aknp tot 1805-06
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1898
Cop* town
during the 1820s, caused a massive dispersal of population
throughout the region and resulted in the emergence of
several new polities or nations, such as those of the Kololo,
the Ndebele, the Swazi and the Ngoni (map 1). This political
turbulence was exacerbated by the arrival in the southern
African interior from the 1830s onwards of migrant Boer
Voortrekkers, attempting to escape control by British
colonists. They sought to establish independent states, largely
in territory depopulated as a result of the mfecane, although
they came into conflict with the Zulu in Natal, most spectac-
ularly at the Battle of Blood River in 1838. Many moved on
again when the British annexed the republic of Natal in 1845.
In West Africa the advance of Islam, associated with the
Fulani jihad of 1804, resulted in the disintegration of long-
established kingdoms, such as the Yoruba empire of Oyo
and the Bambara state of Segu, though the Fulani were
resisted in Borno. By the 1860s the Fulani caliphate of
Sokoto was pre-eminent in the region, having absorbed
much of Hausaland into its aegis.
In Egypt the autocratic modernization strategy adopted
by Muhammad Ali in the early decades of the century trans-
formed this province of the Ottoman Empire into an
independent state in all but name; Egyptian authority was
extended southwards and the Sudan was invaded in
1820-22 in order to secure the upper Nile and find a more
reliable source of slaves.
Around Lake Victoria in East Africa, the kingdoms of
Buganda, Bunyoro and Karagwe were linked by the trading
activities of the Nyamwezi to the Swahili- and Arab-
dominated coastal region, extending outwards from
Zanzibar. To the north, in Ethiopia, the ancient Christian
state centred on Axum was fragmented and in disarray until
the mid-19th century. Thereafter, under the leadership of
John IV and Menelik II, the Ethiopian Empire underwent
consolidation and expansion; Ethiopia has the distinction
of being the only African state to have successfully resisted
19th-century European colonial occupation.
\ ■,
2 The spread of Islam
and Christianity
1860-1900
| I Unburns IBM
I 1 bom am 1840
| Africa) nkjcns
— *■ GvimanEsanafodmty
-4 The first European "explorers" in Africa
were those that ventured into regions in
West Africa already well known to Berber
traders, but hitherto considered too
dangerous for Christians. From the mid-1 9th
century onwards Europeans made
expeditions into central Africa. Their motives
were mixed. David Livingstone summed
ifiem up as: "Christianity, commerce and
civilization", but the pursuit of scientific
knowledge also played a part.
Rival religions
The creation and expansion of new states and societies,
whether originating from within Africa or from external
forces, were accompanied by cultural change and accom-
modation. Religion was a key aspect of such change
(map 2). In North and West Africa, conquest and the
spread of Islam were closely associated, although one did
not presuppose the other. Christianity had been present in
North Africa from the 2nd century and, though checked by
the rise of Islam, had become firmly established in Coptic
Ethiopia. Efforts to convert other parts of Africa to
Christianity had been led by the Portuguese from the 15th
century. It was in the 19th century, however, that intense
Catholic and Protestant proselytization occurred; some,
indeed, see missionaries as crucial precursors of European
colonialism. Christianity did not, however, replace indige-
nous African religious traditions in any simple manner.
Adaptation and coexistence was more the norm and, in
many instances, African forms of Christianity emerged that
would later serve as an important ideology in mobilizing
resistance to European colonialism.
European explorers
Along with trading and missionary activity, explorers played
an important role in "opening up" Africa to Europe
(map 3). At the start of the 19th century the interior of
Africa was barely known to the outside world. Expeditions,
whether motivated by scientific and geographic curiosity or
the search for natural resources and wealth, attracted con-
siderable popular interest in Europe; the exploits of
travellers and explorers were celebrated both in terms of
individual achievement and as sources of national pride.
Among the best-known 19th-century expeditions were
those that explored the sources of the Nile, the Congo, the
Zambezi and the Niger. The exploration and mapping of
Africa proved of considerable importance to the drawing of
colonial boundaries in the late 19th century.
A During the 19th century the two main
religions - Christianity and Islam —
competed for domination of the African
interior. The Muslim religion spread south
from North Africa (although the Coptic
Christians held out in Ethiopia) and inland
from Arab trading bases in East Africa. The
Christian churches sent out missionaries
from European colonies in the south, east
and west of the continent, with the Catholics
and Protestants vying far converts.
© AFRICA 1500-1800 pages 136-37 © THE PARTITION OF AFRICA 1880-1939 pages 206-7
THE PARTITION OF AFRICA
1880-1939
Copo towrP'
2 The South African (Boer) War 1899
-1902
Arao {onnvUed by
I8S2 Dote of fidepeno^itfe
_^ Biilnin of wforaok of war
■ SngtbyMuMnlgW-WIO
B Ahftam IBoenl ns wibiwit of ro
A Uhniwlnf ien-l(0O
Morarj ign-iiao
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Portugal
uofftwiti mnwg
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O GoUming
▲ The South African (Boer) War of
1 899-1 902 was one of the longest and
costliest in British imperial history. In the
initial phase the Afrikaners secured notable
victories, but in 1 900 their main towns were
captured by the British. General Kitchener
finally defeated them by burning their
farmsteads and imprisoning civilians in
concentration camps. In the Peace of
Vereeniging (May 1 902) the Afrikaners lost
their independence. In 1910, however, the
Union of South Africa gained independence
under the leadership of the Afrikaner
general Louis Botha.
Between 1880 and 1914 the whole of Africa was parti-
tioned between rival European powers, leaving only
Liberia and Ethiopia independent of foreign rule
(map 1). The speed of the process was bewildering, even
more so when one considers that most of the African land-
mass and its peoples were parcelled out in a mere ten years
after 1880. European competition for formal possession of
Africa was accompanied by intense nationalist flag-waving
and expressions of racial arrogance, contributing in no small
manner to the tensions that resulted in the outbreak of the
First World War.
Many explanations have been given for the partition of
Africa. Some lay particular stress on economic factors: the
attractiveness of Africa both as a source of raw materials
▲ The partition of Africa was formalized at
the Berlin Conference of 1884-85, attended
by all the major European nations. It was
agreed that a nation that was firmly
established on a stretch of coast had the
right to claim sovereignty over the
associated hinterland on which its trade
depended for the supply of goods.
and as a virtually untapped market for finished goods during
Europe's "second" industrial revolution. Others view the
partition of Africa in terms of intra-European nationalist
rivalry, emphasizing the prestige associated with possession
of foreign territory and the ambitions of individual states-
men and diplomats. Another explanation relates to geo-
political concerns, in particular the strategic designs of
military and naval planners seeking to preserve lines of
communication, such as the route to India through the Suez
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
Canal (opened 1869) and around the Cape. A variant of this
theory emphasizes conditions on the ground, claiming that
European powers were sucked further and further into
Africa as a result of local colonial crises and trading oppor-
tunities. Technological advances (including the telegraph),
as well as more effective protection against disease, facili-
tated the "scramble for Africa".
One of the first examples of colonists fighting for
freedom from European domination occurred following the
discovery of diamonds and gold in territory controlled by
Afrikaner farmers (descendants of Dutch settlers, known to
the British as "Boers"). Prospectors of all nationalities
flooded into the region, and Britain was concerned about a
possible alliance between the Afrikaners and the Germans
to the west. In October 1899 the Afrikaners took pre-
emptive action, besieging British troops massing on their
borders (map 2). British reinforcements won several major
battles, but the Afrikaners then adopted guerrilla tactics
which were eventually overcome by the ruthless approach
of General Kitchener.
Relations between Africans and Europeans
The partition of Africa cannot be satisfactorily understood
without taking into account the dynamics of African societies
themselves. In some instances colonial expansion was made
possible by indigenous leaders who sought to enrol
Europeans as convenient allies in the struggle to establish
supremacy over traditional enemies. Trading and commer-
cial opportunities encouraged certain groups of Africans to
cement ties with Europeans. Some African leaders proved
adept at manipulating relationships with European powers to
their own advantage, at least in the short term; elsewhere,
land or mineral concessions were made to Europeans in the
hope that full-scale occupation could be averted.
In a number of celebrated instances (map 1), Africans
resisted the initial European colonial advance, or rose in
rebellion soon after. Common informal means of resistance
included non-payment of taxes, avoidance of labour
demands, migration, or membership of secret religious soci-
eties. Usually, Africans sought some sort of accommodation
with the advancing Europeans in order to avoid outright con-
frontation. Appearances are therefore deceptive: although the
map indicates European possession of virtually all of Africa
by 1914, in many areas control was notional. Portuguese
control of Mozambique and Angola was especially tenuous.
In non-settler societies and beyond major towns and centres,
many Africans were more or less able to ignore the European
presence and get on with their own lives.
Labour markets and trade
Perhaps the surest measure of the intensity of colonial rule
is the extent to which Africa was integrated into the world
economy (map 3). In southern Africa, the discovery and
exploitation of diamonds and gold created huge demands for
African labour. Migrant workers came from as far afield as
Mozambique, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Demands
for agricultural labour threatened the viability of indepen-
dent African cultivators in the region, although in some
areas - as in the case of cocoa production in the Gold Coast
and Nigeria, for example - colonial systems relied on
indigenous peasant cultivators, who were frequently able to
prosper from their participation in export markets. Forced
labour was widely used by agricultural concession compa-
nies in Mozambique and Angola, and by the rubber
plantations of the Belgian Congo.
Communication infrastructure
Railway networks werre built that linked coastal ports to the
hinterland and served as a major stimulus to trade and com-
modity production. Railways proved particularly important
for the development of mining as well as for commercial
agriculture. They were also vital for the supply of labour and
were crucial for the economic development of the region.
After the initial phase of railway construction, road-
building programmes, especially in the inter-war years,
brought some of the most remote areas into direct contact
with the colonial economy. The arrival of trucks stimulated
the re-emergence of an African merchant class, particularly
in West Africa. Rapid urbanization, a remarkable feature of
the colonial era, was stimulated by the development of trans-
port links and of internal and external trade.
Education and religion
In much of colonial Africa the spread of education was
closely linked to religious change. Christianity in particular
underwent exponential growth. The spread of Western edu-
cation, building on earlier missionary endeavours, tended
to be geared to the requirements of colonial regimes - pro-
viding skilled workers, clerks and petty officials. Many
Africans eagerly embraced education, often as a means of
social advancement. Thus, the spread of literacy opened up
new horizons and possibilities that could not easily be con-
trolled by the colonial powers. It is striking that many of the
early African nationalists were the products of mission
education - men who became politicized when the oppor-
tunities opened up by their education were denied them by
the inequalities inherent in colonial rule.
Education and Christianity were not, however, univer-
sally welcomed by Africans. While offering social mobility
to many, these agencies also threatened the power of tradi-
tional elites. Frequently, forms of Christianity evolved which
combined African belief systems and traditions with
Western ones. The Bible also offered fertile ground for rein-
terpretation in ways that challenged European rule.
Colonialism was the source of great and profound
changes: economic, political, social, cultural and demo-
graphic. Significant and wide-ranging as these changes were,
however, innovations were seldom imposed on a blank slate.
Rather, colonial institutions were built on existing struc-
tures and moulded according to circumstances. Far from
capitulating to alien rule, many African societies showed
great resilience and adaptability in surviving it.
T The export of row materials from Africa
affected agriculture and labour markets
throughout the continent. Although mining
operations and large plantations were
controlled by colonists, small-scale peasant
production did survive in many places and
benefited from export markets. Railways
were crucial to economic development, in
particular for the transportation of mineral
ores. Their effect, however, was mixed:
because they tended to disturb more
traditional forms of transport, the areas
they bypassed often suffered economically.
Datav
3 COLONIAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
TO THE MID-1 930S
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© AFRICA 1800-80 pages 204-5 © AFRICA SINCE 1939 pages 256-57
WORLD TRADE AND EMPIRES
1870-1914
NEW
ZEALAND
A The strengthening ol colonial rale was
linked In a number of etor»mii and poliikol
factors, Iadudtng the need lor taw moleriok
to supply rapidly industrializing economies
nnd the desire to find new markets far
manufactured goads.
1 Thi GROWTH Of WORU) TRADE
[exports plus imparts in
millions oldnllars)
•■it
ff
A There was a particukirly sharp increase
in woild trade between 1900 and 1910. with
the build-up ol armaments by Britain and
Germany - and the associated demand lor
row materials - a contributory factor.
The late 19th century witnessed dramatic changes,
not only in the wnrUI economy hui also in the
relationship between the manufacturing countries
anil those regions of the work! from which raw materials
were obtained. The volume of international trade more than
trebled between INTO and l'JI4 (liur cliart I) alongside
large-scale industrialization in Europe and the United
States, and the spread of colonial rule, particularly in Asia
and Africa. By 1913 Britain had beet) replaced by the United
States as the world's leading manufacturing nation, but it
still handled more trade than any other country [bur
chart 2). London remained the world's leading financial
centre through its operation of the international gold stan-
dard, which defined the cable of the major currencies and
so facilitated trade.
Transport ami communications
The enormous expansion of international trade was greatly
helped by technological developments, especially in trans-
port and communications. Sailing ships gave way to larger
and faster steam vessels, which required coaling stations
strategically placed around the globe {map 1), and mer-
chant shipping fleets expanded to cope with the increased
volume of trade. Voyages between continents were facili-
tated by the opening of the Suck Canal (1869] and the
Panama Canal (191-1). Railways also helped to increase
trading activities, notably in North America and Asiatic
Russia. The electric telegraph network made business trans-
actions between continents easier {mup J). These techno-
logical developments also encouraged massive migrations,
including that of 3D million Europeans who emigrated to
North America during the 1 9th and early 20th centuries.
The creation of wealth in the industrialized countries
led to growing interest in investing some of that wealth in
the developing countries. By financing railway building or
mining development in these areas, industrial economies
helped to increase imports of food and raw materials, and
to create larger export markets for their manufactured
goods. Britain, France, other European countries and later
the United States made substantial overseas investments
1 Empires and patterns of wo rid tram
1880-1914
tmpKS<nl}l4of
■ Brian
1 I Bdgun
~~ | WeprntaiUMisy
| Fiona
I | farmi
_| liiterjffltotCMTrtYiifwnjfls 1
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under European unlto!
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~Z] Midlimds
I h: iuii
— ^ Mom fradu ii» mmJochrod jwdi
D Majof bm and rouling stotlm
(nutp 2 ami pie chart), and were anxious to safeguard these
from political instability and from rivals.
Factors infiae.ncing imperial expansion
In the late 19th century the world economy was becoming
more integrated, with different regions increasingly depen-
dent on one another. Inevitably, competition between
states intensified, spilling over into the political sphere.
Britain's early lead as the first industrial power was linked,
by many observers, to the expansion of the Rritish Empire
from the late 18th century onwards, above all in India.
« )ther countries tried to emolate Britain by building up
empires of their own. As business conditions worsened in
the lS70s and ISSOs, a growing number of countries also
sought to protect their home markets, imposing tariffs to
limit the influx of foreign goods. The attraction of untapped
markets in .Sirica and Asia intensified as a result.
Political factors in Europe also contributed to the
growth of imperialism. National prestige was always a
major consideration, hut it became even more so as inter-
national rivalries heightened (pages 216-17). The newly
formed countries of Germany and Italy, as well as the
declining state of Portugal, saw the acquisition of colonics
as a way of asserting their status as world powers. Overseas
expansion also helped to divert attention from the domes-
tic social problems created by industrialization and
population growth. Further motivation was provided by
Christian missionaries, who were effective in lobbying
governments to defend their activities overseas.
ATIAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
Political and economic changes taking place within
non-European societies created important opportunities for
the European powers to increase their influence. Local
"elites" - groups who became wealthy through trade and
collaboration with European powers - often facilitated the
colonization of an area. Territory was sometimes acquired
in order to protect existing colonial interests from rivals,
or because it was particularly valuable for strategic, rather
than economic, reasons. Often, however, the colonizing
powers found that in order to support a limited initial claim
it became necessary to expand inland from coastal bases
and establish further trade links.
Although no single factor can explain the growth of
imperialism in this period, the results were nevertheless
far-reaching, as evidenced by the "scramble" for overseas
territories in the 1880s and 1890s. By 1914 nearly all of
Africa had been divided up between the European powers
- chiefly Britain, France and Germany - which had also
extended their control of Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
China, also highly prized by the Western powers because of
the enormous potential market it represented, escaped
formal partition only because the Western powers could
not devise a means of dividing it that was acceptable to all
of them. Even here, however, European influence was
strengthened following victory for Britain and France in the
"Opium Wars" of 1840-42 and 1856-60 and the opening
of "treaty ports" (pages 198-99).
The European powers were not alone in their enthusi-
asm for overseas expansion. After defeating Spain in the
war of 1898, the United States inherited many of the
former Spanish colonies, notably the Philippines and
Puerto Rico. Japan, too, lacking economic resources to fuel
its rapid modernization, increasingly looked to China and
Korea. It was the Europeans, however, who gained most
from this phase of imperialism. By 1914 the British Empire
covered a fifth of the world (map 1 ) and included a quarter
of the world's population, while the second-largest empire,
that of France, had expanded by over 10 million square
kilometres (4 million square miles) since 1870.
Although this phase of activity generated great tension
among the colonial powers, aggravating their already exist-
ing mutual suspicions and feelings of insecurity, it was
accomplished without direct conflict between them. (The
partition of Africa, for example, was largely the result of
diplomatic negotiation at the Berlin Conference of
1884-85.) The actual process of laying effective claim to
territories was, however, often accompanied by extreme
violence against indigenous populations, in campaigns of
so-called colonial "pacification".
The consequences of colonial rule
Imperial control had far-reaching consequences for the new
colonies. Their economies became more dependent on, and
more vulnerable to, fluctuations in international trade.
Transport and other infrastructures tended to be developed
to meet the needs of colonial, rather than local, needs.
Artificial colonial boundaries frequently included different
ethnic or linguistic groups, sowing the seeds of future divi-
sions. Initially, the social and cultural impact of colonial
rule was limited, but Western education, medicine and reli-
gion eventually led to a devaluing of indigenous cultures.
Although the colonial powers lacked the resources to
employ force on a routine basis, they maintained their
dominance of a region by repeated assertions of their
superiority, alliances with local interest groups and occa-
sional displays of firepower.
2 The value of foreign trade 1913
(exports plus imports in millions of dollars)
Foreign investment in 1914
(in millions of dollars)
I 1 tot*
[ I Frnni.
| USA
▲ European overseas investment was
considerable. Its aim was to ensure a
continuing supply of raw materials and to
stimulate new markets for finished
products. The United States, which was less
reliant on overseas trade, made a
comparatively small investment given the
size of its manufacturing output.
-4 In 191 3 the United Kingdom was still
the largest trading economy, with Germany
second. Hie United States was by this time
the world's leading manufacturer, but with
its rich supplies of raw materials and
enormous internal market it had less need
for external trade.
T By 1914 an extensive intercontinental
telegraph network facilitated the conduct of
overseas business and enabled stock
markets to communicate with each other.
European nations not only invested in their
colonial possessions in Africa and Asia, but
also in projects in North and South America
and in other European countries.
© THE RISE OF EUROPEAN COMMERCIAL EMPIRES 1600-1800 pages 130-31 © THE BREAKDOWN OF EMPIRES SINCE 1945 pages 246-47
WORLD POPULATION GROWTH
AND URRANIZATION 1800-1914
T Population growth in the 1 8th and 1 9th
centuries was unevenly distributed. Europe's
population trebled, with Britain experiencing
a near fourfold increase. The United States
saw the most spectacular growth, caused by
settlers flooding into the country, although
the number of Native Americans, already
decimated by war and foreign diseases,
continued to decline.
High population growth around the world
was matched by the development of large
conurbations. In 1 800 there were some 40
cities in the world with a population of
between 100,000 and 500,000, of which
nearly half were in Asia. By 1 900 many of
these had more than doubled in size and
new cities had sprung up in the United
States. There were now about 80 cities with
a population of between 250,000 and
500,000, but only just over o fifth of these
were to be found in Asia.
It is estimated that between 1500 and 1800 the world's
population more than doubled, from 425 to 900 million.
Then, from around 1800 the rate of increase began to
accelerate so that the world's population almost doubled in
just 100 years, reaching over 1,600 million in 1900. This
dramatic increase was unequally distributed around the
world (map l).ln some regions it was caused by a a higher
birth rate, in others by a decline in the death rate, but in
most cases it was due to a combination of the two.
Factors contributing to population increase
The birth and death rates in each country were affected by
a range of socio-economic factors. One of the main ones was
the increasing supply of food, which reduced the number of
people dying from malnutrition, and improved people's
overall health, causing them to live longer. The Agricultural
Revolution in 18th-century Europe had led to the use of
more efficient farming techniques, which in turn had
increased food production. The expansion of the inter-
national economy and improvements in transport also
contributed to improved food supplies by enabling large
quantities of cheap food to be transported from North
America and elsewhere to Europe.
Industrialization was another major factor in the popu-
lation growth of the 19th century. Although initially it
created a new urban poverty, in most industrial countries
the living standards of the working classes rose from the
mid-19th century onwards as new employment opportuni-
ties became available. Medical advances made childbirth
less dangerous, and the increasing use of vaccination helped
prevent major epidemics. While in western Europe the use
of birth control led to a drop in the birth rate from the 1880s
onwards, at the same time birth rates in Asia began to rise.
Inter-continental migration
One consequence of the rise in population was an unprece-
dented intercontinental migration of people (map 2).
Although it is usual to distinguish between "voluntary"
migrants - including those seeking improved economic
prospects - and "involuntary" migrants - such as those
ensnared in the slave trade - for many individuals the
motives for emigrating were mixed. They might involve both
-.*<<
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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA \N> af™
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ECUADOR J
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1 World population growth amu
PERLJV 7 !
IISESHIZftJION 1700-1900
^"V
Bounonrj n 190D
Ibouvia\
tWtjjepoputoriiwHise 1700-1 WO nt-
\ 1*3* \ RtcdeJor*w
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1 1 o-m
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■ 100-Mtt
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 4
"push" factors, such as poverty at home, and "pull" factors,
such as the availability of work in the country of destina-
tion. Between the 1880s and the outbreak of the First World
War in 1914 around 900,000 people entered the United
States alone each year, the majority settling in the industri-
alizing north and east of the country (pages 186-87). Before
the 1890s most of these migrants came from northern and
western Europe, but subsequently the majority came from
central and southern Europe. Europeans were particularly
mobile during this period, settling not only in the United
States but also in Latin America, Canada, Australasia, South
Africa and Siberia.
Migration on this unprecedented scale was facilitated by
the revolution in transport, which substantially reduced the
cost of transatlantic travel, and by the investment of
European capital overseas, which created opportunities for
railway building and economic development. Chinese
migrants settled in Southeast Asia, Australia and the United
States, to work in mines and plantations or to build rail-
ways. Pressure on resources in Japan also led many of its
citizens to emigrate to Manchuria and the Americas.
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Increasing urrbanization
In addition to witnessing a large increase in overall popu-
lation levels, the period 1800-1914 saw an increasing
concentration of the world's population in cities (map 1).
This was due both to population growth and, especially in
Europe and the United States, to the development of new
industries in the towns. At the same time, technological
change in agriculture, particularly in Europe, led to a con-
traction in the demand for labour in rural areas.
At the beginning of the 19th century the country with
the most rapid rate of urbanization was Britain, with 20 per
cent of the population of England, Scotland and Wales living
in towns of over 10,000 people (as against 10 per cent for
Europe as a whole). By 1900 around 80 per cent of Britain's
population lived in towns of over 10,000 people, and
London's population had increased to over 5 million.
However, despite the fact that by 1900 many large cities had
developed around the world, the majority of people still
lived in rural areas.
Urban infrastructures were often unable to meet the new
demands being made on them, leading to inadequate
housing stock, water supplies and sewage disposal. Such
conditions were a factor in the cholera epidemics that
affected many European and North American cities from
the 1840s to the 1860s. As a result, measures to improve
public health were introduced in the 1850s, and the last
major European outbreak of cholera was in Hamburg in
1892. Improvements in transport, especially in the railway
system, encouraged the building of suburbs, which greatly
eased the problem of urban overcrowding.
-4 Rapid industrialization gave rise to urban
growth that was frequently uncontrolled and
unplanned. The overcrowded housing that
resulted often led to squalor and disease.
T As the wider world became known to
Europeans, many of them left their native
countries in search of a better life for
themselves and their families. The earliest
of these European migrations was to the
Americas. Around 30 million people left
Europe between 1815 and 1914 bound for
the United States, driven across the Atlantic
by rising unemployment at home in times of
economic depression and, in the case of one
million Irish emigrants, the disastrous potato
famine of the mid-1 840s.
Sometimes migrants left Europe in order
to avoid persecution of various forms, as
was the case with the Russian Jews, who
from the 1 880s were the target of officially
encouraged pogroms. Later European
settlers headed for South Africa and beyond,
to Australia and New Zealand. Elsewhere in
the world millions of Chinese and Japanese
migrated in search of work, the majority to
Southeast Asia but a sizeable number to the
west coast of North America.
The slave trade caused a massive
involuntary migration of Africans to the
Americas and also to Arabia.
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20™ century and beyond
The 20th century is often portrayed as a time of harharism, when
increasingly powerful weapons killed on an enormous scale, oppressive
dictatorships flourished and national, ethnic and religious conflicts raged.
Yet it was also a time when people lived longer, were healthier and more
literate, enjoyed greater participation in politics and had far easier access
to information, transport and communication networks than ever before.
► The two world wors wete
responsible for perhaps more
Inert SO million dealhs. The Fir it
World Wat wos essentially o
European territorial dispute
which, because of extensive
European empires, spread as (at
afield as Africa and Southeast
Asia. The Second Wntld War also
started as a European conflict,
hut spread 1o the Pacific when
Japan seized territory In the
inter-war period disputes broke
out over territory ia South
America and East Asia, but
elsewhere the reluctance ol the
colonial powers to become
embroiled in territorial disputes
maintained an uneasy peace.
▼ The devastating Japanese
attack on the US fleet in Pearl
Harbor, Hawaii, on 7 December
1941 marked the point at which
the Second World War became a
truly global con Ilia
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The world in 1900 was do minuted by the
nation-states of Europe, of which the most
powerful were Britain, France, Russia,
Austria-Hungary and Germany. The country with
the greatest industrial output in I'JIHI was the
United States, which for the first half of the century
chose to remain outside the struggle for supremacy
between the European nations. Power, however,
increasingly shifted away from Europe. The colonial
empires which underpinned it disintegrated and the
United States hecame the leading world power in
the second half of the century.
The first half of the century was dominated by
the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the two world
wars. The wars resulted in unprecedented numbers
of casualties. Eight and a half million people died
fighting in the First World War of 1914-18, with
perhaps up to 1,1 million civilians dying from the
effects of war. During the Second World War as
many as 60 million people are believed to have
died, a quarter of whom were killed in Asia and the
Pacific (map I). Of the total number of casualties
in the Second World War it is estimated that half
were civilians. The scale of the killing was largely
due to the increasingly lethal power of weaponry.
This reached so terrifying a peak with the invention
and use of the atomic bomb at the end of the
Second World War that thereafter the major powers
sought to prevent local conflicts from escalating
into major international wars.
THE COLD WAR
After 1945 there was no reduction in bitter
international conflict, but it took a new form. The
war in Europe was fought by an alliance of the
communist Soviet Union with the capitalist states
of Europe and the United States against the fascist
regimes in Germany and Italy, Following the defeat
of fascism, the United Status and Soviet Union
emerged as bitterly opposed superpowers with the
resources to develop huge arsenals of nuclear
weapons. From I'M 7 a "Cold War" developed
between them and their allies, in the course of
which they gave support to opposing sides in
conflicts in, for example, Korea, Vietnam, Angola
and the Middle East, while the two superpowers
remained formally at peace. The collapse of
communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet
Union in 1989-91 brought the Cold War to an end.
LOCAL CONFLICTS
While there was no global war in the second half of
the century, there were many local wars {map 2),
which were waged with increasing technological
experti.se and precision. Some were wars of
independence from colonial powers, most of which
had given up their empires by 1970. Other
conflicts, such as the Korean War (1950-53) and
Vietnam War (1959-75). were struggles for national
control between communists and non-communists,
each side backed by one of the superpowers. The
United Nations, established in 1945 with the aim of
stabilizing international relations, failed to bring
about world peace, but helped to avert or negotiate
the end of some conflicts.
Some of the most persistent campaigns of
violence during the 20th century were conducted
by powerful governments against people of the
same nation but of another political persuasion,
social class, ethnic group or religious belief. In the
Soviet Union under Stalin ( 1929-5.1) tens of
millions of people were sent to their deaths in
forced-labour camps, in Argentina and Chile in the
1970s thousands of political opponents of the
government simply "disappeared", while in
Cambodia in 1975-79, Pol Pot's brutal experiment
in social restructuring resulted in the death of over
one million people,
"Ethnic cleansing" was a term first used to
describe events in the Balkans in the 1990s, but it
is a concept that regularly scarred the 20th
century. The Ottoman Turks deported an estimated
1.75 million Armenians from eastern Anatolia
during the First World War. In Europe under the
Nazis, between the mid- 1930s and 1945, six million
.lews, along with other minority groups, died in
concentration and death camps.
-4 The opening of the gales in
ibe Berlin Well - symbol of the
post-1945 Ecsl-Ytel division of
Europe ond of the Cold War -
heralded ihe end of communism
in Europe. Moss denronslrrjl ions
ond political pressure from the
Soviet president, Mikhail
Gorbachev, forced the Enst
tji:r ciiini government to
announce the relocation of
border restrictions. On the night
ol 9 November I 989 thousands
of East Berliners flooded through
the border to ibe West, mony of
ihem Inking the opportunity of
demonstrating their contempt for
the Eost Geraion authorities by
climbing an, and breaking down,
the Berlin Wall.
▼ As European colonial control
was largely destroyed between
1945 and 1970, new nation-
stales were crealed One resull
was an increase in localized
wars, largely arising from
boundary disputes, and in civil
wars caused by conflicts between
different ethnic groups or
between ihose wilh conflicting
religious or political beliefs. An
estimated 25-30 million people
died in these wars, two-thirds of
whom were civilians.
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A Voting in government
elections, which ot the beginning
of the 20th century was the
prerogative of only a small
proportion of the world's
population, is now considered a
fundamental civil right for both
men and women. Democracy
reached South Africa in April
1994, when the black population
was allowed to vote in state
elections for the first time.
HEALTH AND WEALTH
During the 20th century enormous improvements
in social and economic conditions took place,
although the improvements were not evenly
distributed around the world. Those countries in
Europe, North America and Asia that had gone
through a process of industrialization in the
previous century reaped the benefits, especially in
the more stable economic environment of the years
between 1945 and the early 1970s, when there was
a general improvement in the standard of living for
the majority of their citizens. In other countries,
most notably those in Southeast Asia, rapid
industrialization took place from the 1970s.
Advances in medical technology transformed the
lives of people in, for example, Europe, North
America and Japan, but were by no means widely
available outside the most affluent nations. The
dramatic decline in infant mortality rates and
increased life expectancy in many countries during
the second half of the 20th century can largely be
ascribed to improved living standards, of which
better medical care was just one part.
The world's population doubled between 1940
and 2000 (to reach six billion), with 90 per cent of
the total growth in the 1990s taking place in the
non-industrialized regions of the world. Population
increases were often accompanied by rapid
urbanization, frequently unplanned and
unsupported by improvements in the urban
infrastructure. Such rapid demographic change
caused increasing social pressures, which could
lead to social instability and conflict.
The supply of food and water became an overtly
political issue during the later 20th century.
Political and environmental factors resulted in
periods of famine in some regions of the world,
notably sub-Saharan Africa, while in Western
Europe and North America improvements in
agricultural technology and subsidies led to gluts of
certain foods, which were then stored to prevent
falling prices. By the end of the century the
increasing demand for water was threatening to
lead to conflicts as, for example, the damming or
diversion of a river by one country caused water
shortages in others.
THE WORLD ECONOMY
The First World War profoundly changed European
politics and society and destabilized the European-
dominated world economic system. This led to
reduced levels of trade and high unemployment -
problems which reached crisis point in the Great
Depression of 1929-33 and were still there at the
outset of the Second World War in 1939.
Following the war, international agreements and
institutions were established to prevent further crises
and to stabilize and expand world trade. Partly in
consequence, the period from the late 1940s until the
early 1970s was an economic "golden age" for the
industrialized countries. This economic boom came
to an end when oil prices soared in the 1970s. Both
rich and poor countries suffered the consequences as
unemployment rose to levels comparable with those
of the inter-war years. Many developing countries
were encouraged to take out huge loans, the
▼ During the 20th century a growing
number of women became actively
involved in politics. Their role was
largely confined to the grassroots level,
with the number of women holding
government posts remaining low.
However, as with this woman speaking
out against the detention of political
prisoners in Indonesia in 1995, they
often found a voice in protest politics.
3 Major trading blocs 1998
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repayment ot' which had a detrimental effect on their
subsequent economic and social development.
THE SPREAD OF DEMOCRACY
Although at the Iveguming of the 20th century a
number of countries had elected governments, in
none of these was there universal suffrage - the right
of every adult citizen to vote. A few countries had
granted the vote to a high proportion of adult men.
but only New Zealand had extended the vote to
women. As the century progressed, representative
democracy and universal suffrage spread to all
continents , although it was frequently fragile as, for
example, when military rulers seized control in some
Latin American countries in the 1970s, or in several
African countries in the 1980s and 1990s.
Authoritarian communist governments, which had
ruled in the Soviet Union for over 70 years and in
Eastern Kurope for over 40 years, collapsed in
]9iS9-91, bringing democratic institutions to more
than 400 million people. At the end of the century,
however, the fifth of the world's population who lived
in ihc People's Republic of China (established by the
Communist 1'arty in 1949 after a long civil war),
together with citizens of many Middle Eastern
countries, still did not enjoy full political rights.
GLOBALIZATION AND NATIONALISM
The defining feature of the closing decades of the
20th century and the start of the 2 1st century was
considered by some to Ik; "globalization", with
multinational corporations moving their operations
around the world in accordance with their needs, and
individuals travelling and communicating with one
another across frontiers with unprecedented ease.
However, it was questioned whether what was
occurring was globalization or the "Americanization"
of developing economies and of many aspects of
international culture. Others stressed the significance
of the new regional economic groupings which had
emerged in the second half of the century {map 3),
An equally strong feature was nationalism -
expressed both by nations attempting to avoid
domination by superpowers, and by groups within
nation-states who felt oppressed on economic,
religious or ethnic grounds. It was accompanied by
the growth of religious extremism and terrorism, The
attacks on the United States on September 1 1, 2001,
were a dramatic indication of the threat posed to the
global community by international terrorist groups.
A Since lb Second World War
there bos been o worldwide
irerid towards ihe erection ol
(ratling bloc between
neighbouring states oral
erstwhile enemies.
▼ Skyscrapers hove become on
increasingly dorninotil lecture ol
Americon cities since the end of
the 1 9th century, symbolizing the
enormous wealth ol the United
Slotes and its position as the
world's mast powerful notion. The
photo shows the financial district
of Son Francisco.
115
THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR
1871-1914
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fter the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 Europe underwent
a period of domestic transformation and upheaval that
. permanently altered its make-up. New nation states
such as Italy were created, while the great multi-ethnic
empires of the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary began to
weaken. For much of the 19th century a balance of power
existed in which no single European nation was strong
enough to dominate, or attempt to dominate, the whole con-
tinent. This balance could not, however, endure for ever.
The rise of Germany
The great European powers that had fought the Napoleonic
Wars - Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria and France - were
growing at different rates. The most startling change occurred
in the centre of Europe. Prussia, which had been the small-
est of the great powers, had by 1871 been replaced by a
formidable, dynamic Germany, which single-handedly
defeated the Austrian Empire in 1866 and then France in
1871 (resulting in the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine)
(map 1). The rise of Germany effectively altered the conti-
nent-wide balance of power.
The Industrial Revolution had changed the basis of
national strength, making a country's production of coal, iron
and steel, and the sophistication of its weaponry, even more
important than the size of its population. Between 1871 and
1913 Germany moved from being the second strongest to
being the leading industrial power in Europe (bar charts) -
an economic strength that from 1890 was combined with a
A In on attempl lo isolate France ibe
newly unified Germany made alliances with
Austria- Hungary, forming o huge power
blot in central Europe. These alliances ol
Included Germany's arch-rival Russia (1881 )
and Italy IHJII.
I" The system ol alnnces between the
countries of Europe in 191 4 ensured that
when Austria threatened Serbia following
the assassination af Archduke Ferdinand,
all the major European powers rapidly
become nvol 1
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confrontational and heavy-handed foreign policy. In 1881 the
German Chancellor, Count Otto von Bismarck, had con-
cluded an alliance with Russia and Austria-Hungary, known
as the "Three Emperors' Alliance" - a move intended to keep
France isolated. To counterbalance this alliance with Russia
(a country that might more realistically be seen as a threat),
he also entered into a "Triple Alliance" with Austria-Hungary
and Italy in 1882 (map 1). After Bismarck's fall in 1890,
however, German foreign policy became increasingly con-
cerned with the desire for expansion, both in Europe and
further afield, in Africa and Southeast Asia. The Germans felt
that unless they acquired a large and profitable empire they
would eventually be left behind by their giant rivals: Russia,
the British Empire and the United States.
The Double Entente
Meanwhile, France, which had been alternately fearful and
resentful of German strength since the loss of Alsace and
Lorraine in 1871, broke out of its isolation in 1894 by
making an alliance with Russia. Neither country was a match
for Germany on its own. France had neither sufficient pop-
ulation base nor industrial resources, while Russia, still
relatively undeveloped industrially, could not properly utilize
its enormous population and resources, as was demonstrated
in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 (pages 200-1).
The Franco-Russian alliance (the "Double Entente") was
a first step towards the creation of an anti-German coalition,
but if Germany's growing power was to be effectively
opposed, Britain had to be included. For much of the 19th
century Britain had tried to distance itself from European
affairs - a policy sometimes termed "splendid isolation".
With a massive and growing global empire and the world's
first industrialized economy, Britain saw little profit in
actively intervening on the Continent. At the end of the
century, however, its isolation seemed considerably less
palatable as its economic dominance disappeared with the
industrialization of other European countries and the United
States. Meanwhile, the criticisms levelled at its role in the
South African (Boer) War (1899-1902) (pages 206-7)
showed that much of Europe (and a sizeable proportion of
the British people) resented its imperial domination.
The Triple Entente
It was by no means certain that Britain would side with the
Franco-Russian alliance. France and Russia had been consid-
ered Britain's greatest enemies during most of the 19th
century, and in 1901 the British and German governments
discussed signing an alliance of their own. However, as
German power continued to grow, Britain signed an entente
with France in 1904 and with Russia in 1907. Neither of these
agreements was in fact a formal pledge of British mili-tary
support for France and Russia in the event of a German
attack, but Britain's resolve was hardened by the growth of
the German navy; urged on by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the
Germans had, since 1898, been building up their naval
strength, and by 1909 it seemed possible that they could
achieve naval supremacy. Since naval supremacy had always
been one of the cardinal elements of British policy, the British
government, led by its very anti-German Foreign Secretary
Sir Edward Grey, reacted by dramatically increasing produc-
tion of British battleships. The subsequent naval construction
race, won by the British, increased the rivalry between the
countries and made it more likely that Britain would inter-
vene if Germany went to war with France and Russia.
The Balkans
This still did not mean that war was inevitable. For the first
part of 1914 Europe seemed peaceful. The issue that broke
this calm was a crisis in the Balkans (map 3), an area of
southeastern Europe that had been under Ottoman rule for
centuries (pages 1 78-79). During the second half of the 19th
century Serbia, Bulgaria, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Albania all
agitated for independence. Austria-Hungary and Russia both
coveted these areas, and in 1908 Austria annexed Bosnia into
its empire. Russia was forced to accept this arrangement
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because of German support for Austria. Bosnia was a multi-
ethnic area populated by Croats, Serbs and Muslims of
Turkish and Slavic descent. Serbian nationalists opposed
Austrian rule in Bosnia, seeking to include the region in a
larger Serbian national state. When Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, visited Sarajevo, the
capital of Bosnia, in June 1914, he and his wife were assassi-
nated by a Serbian nationalist. Austria's response was to set
about crushing Serbian nationalism permanently. The
Russians opposed Austrian attempts to dominate Serbia,
while Germany promised to support any move the Austrians
made. When the Russians duly mobilized their entire armed
forces, the Germans and then the French called up their
armies. As military goals became central to each nation's poli-
cies, the outbreak of the First World War became inevitable.
Steel production 1890 and 1913
Coal production 1890 and 1913
[in thousands of tonnes)
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▲ In October 1912 Montenegro, Greece,
Serbia and Bulgaria declared war on the
Ottoman Empire. As a result, the Ottomans
relinquished almost all their lands in
southeast Europe in 1 91 3, to the advantage
of the victorious states. A second war then
erupted between Bulgaria and Serbia over
territory in Macedonia - a war which Serbia
won, supported by Montenegro, Romania
and the Ottoman Empire. These two Balkan
Wars, in creating a militarily strong and
ambitious Serbia, inflamed existing tensions
between Serbia (supported by Russia) and
Austria-Hungary and thus contributed to
the outbreak of the First World War.
< Between 1 890 and 1 91 3 all the ma|or
industrialized nations of Europe increased
their production of steel, but Germany
outstripped them all with a massive
700 per cent increase. Coal, vital to the
process of industrialization, was also mined
in increasing quantities. This development of
heavy industry was a necessary precondition
for the manufacture of modern weapons,
notably battleships.
© THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND OF GERMANY 1815-71 pages 176-77 © THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-18 pages 218-19
THE FIRST WORLD WAR
1914-18
3 Trench warfare: Battle of the Somme
1916
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been repulsed by the Entente Powers, bath
tides dug an extensive network of
trenches often only o few hundred metres
apart. Modern ortillery and machine-guns
mode these trendies easy to defend and
difficult to attack. On the first day of tbe
Battle ol the Samme, I July 1 91 i. when
the British attempted to break: through
German lines, ?O.OO0 British troops last
their fives, with 1 .000 Idled in two ottocks
on the short sector between Hebuterne
and Gommecourl alone.
► While- the euttome ol the First World
War was finally derided on the Western
Front, fighting tank place in many areas af
Europe and the rest af the world. On the
Eastern Front the Russians, after some
initial success, were forced back by an
army equipped vrilh modem weaponry lor
which they were no match. The Italians
became bogged dawn in a small area of
northeast Italy, but were finally driven
bock following the Battle of Coporelto in
October 1 917. Troops of the Ottoman
Empire became involved in fierce fighting
with those of the British Empire in the
Tigris Valley. The Arabs assisted tfte Entente
Powers by staging a revolt against Ihe
Ottomans, evenlualy driving them
northwards as far as Damascus.
o
n 1 August 1914 the German army crossed the
Belgian border and the hirst World War began. The
armies of the Triple Entente (Britain, France and
Russia) implemented plans drawn up in preparation for any
German aggression. The French "Plan 17" called for a light-
ning invasion of Alsace-Lorraine on Germany's western
border, and the Russians began the task of assembling their
massive army and launching it against Germany's eastern
frontier (mop 1). The Germans had devised their famous
"Seltlicffen Plan", according to which the German army
would move through Belgium into France, sweeping around
Paris and encircling the French army (moil 2) before the
slower-moving Russians could muster their forces on the
Germans' Eastern Front.
If executed properly the Sehlieffen Plan might have
resulted in a German victory in 1914, but although the
German army made quick progress through Belgium, their
Chief of General Staff, von Moltke, became increasingly con-
cerned about Russian strength and transferred troops away
from France to the Eastern Front. The Germans therefore
had to turn south sooner than intended, allowing the French
army to throw all available troops against their exposed
flank on the Marne River {map 2). This "miracle" of the
Manic was the first crucial taming point of the war
The Sehlieffen Plan was a political, as well as military,
failure for the Germans. By invading Belgium, the Germans
had ignored long-standing treaties guaranteeing that
country's neutrality, and convinced the British of the need
to enter the war. Germany thus found itself hemmed in on
two sides by the Entente Powers, with only the support of
Austria-Hungary, and later Turkey and Bulgaria.
The Western Front
Stalemate quickly ensued on the Western Front, as the
Germans, British and French built long lines of trenches
stretching from the Swiss border, through northern France
to the English Channel. Long-range artillery pieces, accu-
rate rifles and, most importantly, machine-guns gave the
defenders a crucial advantage ever the attacking forces.
Industrialization and a well-developed railway system
[pages 170-71) also meant that more ammunition and
other vital supplies were available than ever before and that
large armies could Ise transported from area to area as the
situation dictated. For the next three years the Western
Front was a brutal killing field (par chart). The destructive
nature of modern warfare was particularly demonstrated irv
1916 when the Franco-German struggle over Verdun and
the British offensives on the Somme led to the slaughter of
1.7 million men [mup 3). The following year the French
offensives against the retrenched German position on the
Siegfried/Hindenburg line caused such heavy French casu-
alties that there was mutiny among French troops.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
1 The First World Wak in Europe and the Middle East
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Fighting around the world
The picture on other fronts was more fluid, but just as
bloody. On the Eastern Front a large Russian army was
heavily defeated at the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914
(map 1), and although the Russians saw limited success in
1915, ultimately their large, but poorly organized, forces
were pushed back. The Germans made deep advances into
European Russia in 1916, and by 1917 the morale of the
Russian army and of its people was beginning to crack. The
ensuing Russian Revolution and the triumph of the
Bolsheviks led to Russia signing an armistice agreement
with Germany at the end of 1917 (pages 222-23).
In the Middle East fighting also moved back and forth
over a considerable area. Initially, the Entente Powers fared
badly, with British, Australian, New Zealand and French
soldiers being pinned down and forced to withdraw from the
Gallipoli Peninsula during 1915 and early 1916, and a
British Empire force from India surrendering to the
Ottomans at Al Kut in April 1916. Soon, however, the tide
began to turn. An Arab uprising against Ottoman rule in the
summer of 1916 pushed the Ottomans out of much of the
Arabian Peninsula, and in December 1917 the British cap-
tured Jerusalem. Despite these victories, the events in the
Middle East had no decisive influence on the outcome of the
First World War, which could really only be decided on the
battlefields of Europe.
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In Africa fighting broke out in all German colonies, but
was most protracted in German East Africa where, in 1916,
British, South African and Portuguese forces combined
under General Smuts to counter the German forces.
In 1915 the Italian government, a signatory of the Triple
Alliance (pages 216-17), joined the Entente Powers,
following promises of Austrian territory. In the next two
years hundreds of thousands of Italians were slaughtered
before an Austrian-German force inflicted defeat on the
Italian army at the Battle of Gaporetto in October 1917.
The entry of the United States
By 1917 the fortunes of the Entente Powers within Europe
were at a low ebb, and a German victory seemed a distinct
possibility. A disastrous German foreign and strategic policy
was, however, to throw away their chance of victory.
It had been assumed by both sides before the war began
that large fleets of battleships would engage in a decisive
battle for naval supremacy. As it turned out, neither the
Germans nor the British were willing to expose their surface
fleets unduly, and only one large sea battle took place: the
Battle of Jutland in 1916. It was a rather confused affair,
with the Germans inflicting the greatest damage but being
forced back to port. In the end it changed very little.
In preference to surface fighting, the Germans turned
early in the war to submarine warfare as a means of cutting
off vital imports to Britain. By sinking merchant ships
without warning, however, the Germans inflamed US
opinion. At first, after the sinking of the liner SS Lusitania
in 1915, the Germans backed off, but in February 1917, in
a dangerous gamble, they renewed their unrestricted sub-
marine warfare around the British Isles. They were hoping
to knock Britain out of the war before the United States
could intervene - a rash gamble that failed when the
Americans declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917.
The final push
Following the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the
Russians on 3 March 1918, the Germans were able to con-
centrate their resources on the Western Front. Between
March and July 1918 the German army hurled itself against
the French and British lines, making significant break-
throughs and advancing further than at any time since
1914. German resources were not, however, sufficient to
finish the job. As US troops and supplies flooded into
Europe, the German advance petered out, and the German
army began to crumple in the face of a counteroffensive.
Unable to increase their supply of men and weapons, the
Germans realized that they had lost the war. They
approached the Entente Powers for peace terms - and at
11.00 am on 11 November 1918 the fighting ceased.
▲ The original German "Schlieffen Plan"
to encircle Paris from the northwest would
almost certainly have resulted in a rapid
victory. Instead, the German army was
forced to retreat following the successful
Marne offensive by the French, and the two
sides dug themselves in for a war of attrition
that was to last four years. In March 1917,
anticipating the Nivelle offensive by the
Entente Powers, the Germans withdrew to
the Siegfried/Hindenburg Line. A German
offensive in 1 91 8 was initially successful,
but their much smaller army was
overstretched, while the Entente Powers
were now reinforced by US troops. The
Germans were driven back until, in
November 1918, they were forced to
request a truce.
T The two sides were unevenly matched in
terms of the number of men they mobilized.
The proportion of casualties (which includes
those wounded, killed, reported missing in
battle or dying from disease, and prisoners
of war) was also uneven, with the Entente
Powers suffering a casualty rate of 52 per
cent against that of 67 per cent for the
Central Powers.
Troops and casualties
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© THE BUILD-UP TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1871-1914 pages 216-17 © OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1918-39 pages 220-21
OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST
WORLD WAR 1918-29
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A As a result of the Paris Peace
Conference of 1 91 9 the Austro-Hungarian
Empire was dismantled. Most of it was
formed into small nation-states, including
the new state of Czechoslovakia. In the
south, however, several ethnically distinct
regions were amalgamated with previously
independent states to form Yugoslavia,
under the domination of Serbia. Germany
lost territory in the east to the recreated
Poland, while a demilitarized area was
established along Germany's border with
France. The newly formed Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics, threatened by anti-
revolutionary forces, was in no postilion to
resist moves to carve up territory on its
western borders.
The First World War changed the map of Europe and
the Middle East for ever. Centuries-old empires
(map 1) were destroyed and new national states
were created. The most important event in establishing the
new Europe was the Paris Peace Conference (January- June
L919), which resulted in the Treaty of Versailles. The con-
ference was called by the victorious Entente Powers after
Germany had asked for an armistice in November 1918.
Most of the countries involved in the war were represented
in some way, but the decision-making power was held by
the delegations of the "Big Three": the British, led by Prime
Minister David Lloyd George, the French, led by Premier
Georges Clemenceau, and the United States, led by
President Woodrow Wilson.
The negotiations were delicate and often stormy. In a
desire to destroy German power, the French called for the
division and disarmament of Germany and for such huge
reparations that the German economy would have been
crippled for decades. The Americans, on the other hand,
sought to establish a stable Europe and a new League of
Nations to guarantee global security. They believed that the
peace should be based on President Wilson's famous
"Fourteen Points" and should be as magnanimous as pos-
sible. The British were stuck in the middle: they wished to
see a reduction in German power, but were wary of weak-
ening the Germans so much that they would be completely
under French domination or unable to trade. (Germany
had been Britain's main European pre-war trading partner.)
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles, when signed in June 1919, repre-
sented a compromise between these different positions.
The provinces of Alsace and Lorraine were given to France,
while a large slice of eastern Germany was given to the
re-established Polish state (map 2). The German city of
Danzig, which was surrounded by countryside populated
by Poles, was made a "Free City". Germany was also sub-
jected to humiliating internal restrictions: the Rhineland,
Germany's industrial heartland, was to be demilitarized
(leaving it open to the threat of French invasion), while the
German air force was ordered to disband, the army
reduced to 100,000 men and the navy limited to a small
number of warships. The treaty also stripped Germany of
its imperial possessions in Africa and the Pacific, but since
this empire had added little to German national strength,
its loss did little to weaken it.
For all of its losses, Germany fared much better than
its closest ally, Austria-Hungary. This multi-ethnic empire
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
was broken up by the Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919) into
a host of smaller national states (map 2): Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Austria and
Hungary. Italy, which had entered the war in 1915 because
of the promise of booty from Austria-Hungary, was
rewarded with a sizeable chunk of new territory.
Russian territorial losses
The greatest territorial losses of any country in Europe
were those suffered by Russia, which had, under the tsar,
been allied to France and Britain, but lost the war against
Germany on the Eastern Front. After the Bolshevik revo-
lution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War (pages
222-23), the Soviet regime found itself incapable of holding
on to much of its empire in Europe. Finland and the Baltic
states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania soon won their inde-
pendence, while the province of Bessarabia was added to
Romania (map 2). The greatest loss of Russian territory
was to the newly created Poland, which gained further ter-
ritory as a result of a brief war with Russia in 1921.
As a result of the Paris Peace Conference, nine new
states (including Austria and Hungary) were constructed
from various parts of Germany, Austria-Hungary and
Russia. Whether or not this was a good thing for the
European balance of power remained to be seen. Both
Germany and the Soviet Union were eager to regain much
of the territory they had given up against their will. In
southeast Europe, meanwhile, a variety of different nation-
alities that had been held in check by Austria-Hungary
were now exposed to a whole new set of tensions.
The League of Nations
The Versailles treaty also called for the establishment of a
League of Nations, an idea championed by President
Wilson of the United States. Unfortunately, the American
public was not persuaded of its necessity, and after a bitter
debate in the Senate the United States decided to stay out
of the League and refused to ratify the Treaty. The British
and the French had been unable to master German might
without American aid, and despite its losses Germany
retained the potential to dominate Europe - demonstrated
by the recovery in its industrial output during the 1920s.
The dismantling of the Ottoman Empire
The First World War finally broke up the Ottoman Empire
but still left much of the Middle East in limbo. Most of the
region was assigned to British or French control (map 3)
▲ In the 1 920s France, anxious to isolate
Germany within Europe, created a series of
alliances with some of the newly
eastern European states. The most
significant alliance of the 1 920s was the
"Little Entente", intended to provide mutual
protection to the boundaries of its
signatories, and a united foreign policy.
under League of Nations mandates. Even areas that gained
nominal independence - Egypt and the new Arab kingdoms
- were heavily reliant on Britain for their defence and
development. The one state that grew in strength during
the immediate post-war period was, surprisingly, Turkey.
Shorn of its imperial burdens, the Turks, led by Ataturk,
countered an invasion attempt by Greece in 1922, brutally
quelled Armenian nationalists sympathetic to the Greeks,
drove out the British and French and established the
Turkish Republic in 1923 (pages 1 78-79).
The long-term outcomes of the peace
The Versailles treaty has been harshly criticized and,
indeed, has been seen as one of the fundamental causes of
the Second World War. In 1923, in response to Germany's
inability to pay war reparations, the French moved their
army into the Rhineland. The German mark collapsed in
value and by 1924 Germany was gripped in a cycle of hyper-
inflation that saw some people taking home their pay
packets in wheelbarrows. By the late 1920s, however,
Europe seemed to be on the way to establishing a new equi-
librium; the economies of all the major European countries
had recovered and were experiencing strong growth.
The French saw the new eastern European states as a
potential future bulwark against Germany and were eager
to knit them into a defensive alliance system (map 4). For
a while the strategy seemed quite successful, as eastern
Europe developed a new stability. Czechoslovakia evolved
into a democracy, Poland became a nation-state capable of
defeating the Soviet Union and establishing friendly rela-
tions with its neighbours, while Yugoslavia seemed able to
accommodate a multi-ethnic population. Perhaps if the
prosperity of the 1920s had continued for longer, eastern
Europe might have become stable enough to survive
German and Russian attempts to take back their lost lands.
The Great Depression that started in 1929, and affected
the economy of every country in Europe to some extent,
brought to an end Europe's brief period of co-operation and
recovery. This financial crisis served as the catalyst for the
rise to power of the German Nazi party (pages 230-31),
which swept aside the settlement laid out in the Versailles
treaty and ended attempts to find peaceful solutions to
Europe's complex problems.
A The Treaty of Sevres (1920) divided
the defeated Ottoman Empire into British
and French mandates in the Middle East,
intended as temporary administrations
leading eventually to independence.
Kuwait, nominally independent, remained
strongly influenced by Britain, as was
Egypt. Large areas of Turkey were placed
under European control, until Turkish
resistance forced the withdrawal of all
foreigners and led to the founding of the
Republic of Turkey in 1923.
A President Woodrow Wilson of the United
States arrived at the Paris Peace Conference
advocating a liberal approach to world
affairs, including an end to colonial rule and
the setting up of a League of Nations to
maintain world peace. While the other
victorious powers forced him to compromise
on some of his aims, the League of Nations
was included in the Treaty of Versailles. To
Wilson's disappointment, however, the
United States Senate rejected American
involvement in such an organization and
refused to ratify the treaty.
© THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-18 pages 218-19 © THE GREAT DEPRESSION 1929-33 pages 228-29
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
1917-39
▲ In the period immediately after the
Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 Lenin (/eft!
and Stalin {right) worked closely together,
and in 1922 Stalin was appointed Secretary-
General of the Communist Parly, while Lenin
remained head of the government. Shortly
before his death, however, Lenin made it
clear that he did not regard Stalin as a
suitable successor - information that Stalin
ignored and repressed in his drive to
become leader of the Soviet Union.
► After sweeping away the Provisional
Government in November 1 91 7 the
Bolsheviks faced widespread opposition both
within and outside Russia. The Treaty of
Brest-Utovsk in March 1918 ended the war
with Germany but led to a civil war in which
the Entente Powers initially supported the
"Whites" (anti-Bolsheviks) against the
"Reds" (the Bolsheviks). Admiral Kolchak
formed an Eastern Front in Siberia and in
1919 advanced beyond the Volga. In the
south, resistance was led by Denikin but he
was brought to a halt short of Orel. In the
north, Yudenich led his troops to the suburbs
of Petrograd, but was then driven back.
Wrangel, taking over what was left of
Denikin's forces, defended the area around
Sevastopol for some time but was finally
forced to withdraw in November 1 920.
Meanwhile, the Poles were attempting to
gain as much as they could of Lithuania,
White Russia (Byelorussia) and Ukraine.
They got as far as Kiev but then had to
withdraw as the Red Army advanced in turn
towards Warsaw. When the Poles regained
the initiative Lenin decided to sue for peace
and, under the Treaty of Riga in October
1920, 10 million Ukrainians and Russians
were assigned to Polish rule. By the end of
the year military operations were over and
the communist (Bolshevik) government was
in control of what was left of Russia.
The Russian Revolution - one of the formative events
of the 20th century - was precipitated by pressures
arising from the hardships experienced during the
First World War. A popular uprising in March 1917 led to
the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the creation of a
liberal Provisional Government, which was soon forced to
share power with the socialist Petrograd Soviet of Workers'
and Soldiers' Deputies. As the revolution spread, Soviets
sprang up in many cities, peasants seized land from the
gentry and soldiers deserted. A dual system of government
developed, with the Soviets largely controlling those leaders
who took their authority from the Provisional Government.
During the subsequent months the ideological rift
between the two bodies widened, with the Provisional
Government delaying the setting up of a Constituent
Assembly (which was to decide on major economic and
political policies), concentrating instead on a continued war
effort. The Petrograd Soviet, meanwhile, came increasingly
under the influence of the Bolshevik movement, led by
Lenin, which secured popular urban support with its slogans
"peace, bread and land" and "all power to the Soviets". In
November 1917 the Bolsheviks carried out a successful
coup, seizing control of the Winter Palace, seat of the
Provisional Government. Lenin then set about establishing
a dictatorship of the proletariat and a one-party system.
Civil War
The new Bolshevik government arranged an armistice with
the Central Powers in December 1917, formalized in the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Under the terms of
the treaty Russia relinquished control of its western
territories. Anger at these losses and at the closure of the
recently elected Constituent Assembly fuelled opposition to
the retitled Communist (Bolshevik) Party. Civil war broke
out, during which anti-communist "White" armies and
foreign interventionists opposed the Red Army, led by Leon
Trotsky (map 1). The Red Army was initially pushed back,
but its military superiority over the comparatively disunited
White armies enabled it to regain control of Central Asia,
the Caucasus and Ukraine, although territory was lost in the
war with Poland in 1920. This war did not spread the
revolution into Europe, as Lenin had hoped it would.
Outside Russia proletarian support for communism was
limited (map 2) and when the Soviet Union was founded in
1922 it was confined to the territories of the old empire.
In order to back up the efforts of the Red Army, Lenin
took rapid steps to impose nationalization and centraliza-
tion in a process known as "war communism". However,
revolts by peasants in the spring of 1921 forced him to intro-
duce the New Economic Policy (NEP), based on concessions
to the peasantry and a semi-market economy. Although the
3 The Soviet Union 1928-39
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Lenin to consolidate
power, many convinced
communists saw it as a
slide towards a capitalist
society. Lenin, at his death in
January 1924. thus left two
conflicting models of socialist advancer war
communism and the NEP. The struggle lor power among his
closest followers was to he fought out partly on the issue of
which policy should he taken as the true Leninist line-
Stalin's RISE TO power
The struggle was won by Stalin, who outmanoeuvred rivals
such as Trotsky and Bukharin. Kneed with foreign hostility,
and convinced that the revolution should achieve an indus-
trial, proletarian society, Stalin launched his drive to cntch
up with the West in ten years with a return to the central-
ization and utupianistu of the civil war years. The First Five
Year Plan was adopted in I92.S, its aims being to develop
heavy industry, which had been devastated during the civil
war, and collectivize agriculture. Industrial advance was
indeed impressive, although at the cost of enormous waste,
inefficiency and suffering, as wildly over-optimistic targets
for output were set. The population of the big cities nearly
doubled between 1928 and 1933, and the urban infrastruc-
ture could not keep pace. Targets concentrated on heavy
in dust ry. and although they were not met, the economy was
transformed. In the 1'rals. the Donbass and Kuzbass coal-
fields, the Volga area and Siberia, huge new metallurgical
enterprises were developed (iinijj .1). Magnitogorsk, the
Turksih railway (between Tashkent and Semipalatinsk), the
Dneprosttoi hydro-electric complex and the White Sea
Canal all date from this lime. They were also all built par-
tirillv willi prison camp labour fur rile First live Year Plan
saw p a vast expansion of the concentration camps of the civil
war. The secret police were deeply involved in the economy.
The forcible establishment of collective farms, with the
deportation to Siberia of
kulaks (rich peasant farmers)
helped control the peasantry- It
was, however, an economic disaster,
leading to a catastrophic famine.
Opposition to the speed and force of
the changes led to the great terror of
19.17-.1S, with show trials of party leaders and the
deportation of millions of citizens to labour camps across
the country. The scale of the famine, the horrors of collec-
tivization, and tile extent of the terror were not revealed to
the Soviet public until the late 1980s. In 1939 the Stalin cult
of personality was at its height and, to many sympathisers in
Europe, this was indeed a brave new world.
2 Revoiutionary activity in
Europe 1919-23
e* Centre el rnvolutienorv Dctiwly
Boundary 1913
A His First World Wor and iM wit had a
dt vanning, effect on Russia's industrial
output, redwing it by 1 920 to one fifth at
its I 91 3 level. Manufacturing hod recovered
by 1 92B when the First Five tar Plan urns
launched. Hits succeeded in transforming
ihe Soviet economy, creating, hundreds ol
new mining, engineeering and metallurgical
enterprises in established industrial aim
and new factories in the empty lands of the
non- Russian republics
-4 The Bolsheviks assumed that theii
revolution would spark off revolutions
across Europe, and ia 1 91 &- 1 9 il looked lor
a while as if this would happen. A soviet
republic in Hungary, led try Sola Knit.
sur vivd W monlhs in 1 9 1 9, and others in
Bavaria ami Slovakia tasted four and three
weeks respectively. The Spartakist uprising
under Rosa Luxemburg in Berlin in January
1 9 1 1 wets (rushed hy flit new Weimar
Republic and further insurrections in
German towns were unsuccessful. Suites
spread across Europe From northern Italy to
the Sdlk, but the European revolution the
Bolsheviks hoped for tailed la materialize
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223
THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA
1911-49
MANCHUKUO ~
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▲ From 1 934 tol 936 the Communists
organized a series of retrenchments in the
(ace of Kuomintang attacks. From their
southern bases they embarked on lengthy
journeys to the north, by way of the
mountainous west. The most famous -
known as "the Long March" - was that
undertaken by the First Front Army, led by
Mao Zedong. The casualty and drop-out rate
on the marches was high: of 300,000
soldiers who set out, only 30,000 arrived in
Yan-an. The Fourth Army (led by a political
rival of Mao) was denied access to Yan-an
and sent away to remote Gaotai, where it
suffered heavy losses after confronting
some well-equipped Kuomintang troops.
Meanwhile, the Japanese, with the help of
their Monchu collaborators, were firmly in
control of Manchuria (which they renamed
Manchukuo) and were poised to launch a
full-scale invasion and occupation of the rest
of China in 1937.
The Revolution of 1911, which had seen the overthrow
of the last Manchu Qing emperor and the establish-
ment of the first Republic, failed to solve any of
China's economic or social problems (pages 198-99). The
most important and urgent goals for the new government
were the unification and defence of the country, but they
were not easily achieved. The presidential term of the rev-
olutionary leader Sun Yat-sen lasted for barely six weeks
after his inauguration in January 1912, and in December
1915 President Yuan Shikai attempted to restore the monar-
chy by crowning himself emperor. The attempt was a
failure, as was that made by General Zhang Xun and the
dethroned Qing Emperor Xuantong in 1917. Both attempts,
however, provided opportunities for local warlords to
re-establish their power at the expense of central govern-
ment. Over the next 30 years, although a fragile equilibrium
existed between the various warlords and other interest
groups, the Chinese Republic was in virtual anarchy.
Civil war
The first North-South War broke out in 1917 and resulted in
a chain reaction that led to full-scale civil war and the estab-
lishment of a number of governing regimes across the
country. To challenge the authority of the northern war-
lords, Sun Yat-sen formed his own southern governments in
Guangzhou in 1917, 1921 and 1923. He also set about
creating a united Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) and forging
links with the still very small Communist Party, which was
growing under the control of the Comintern (an interna-
tional communist organization founded in Moscow in 1919).
In 1924 Sun Yat-sen was invited to Beijing to discuss the
possible unification of China, but he died there in March
1925 without concluding an agreement, and the second
North-South War began the following year.
The Kuomintang was nominally unified at the end of
1928 under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek, and gradu-
ally gained control of strategic regions. It was not, however,
until the end of 1930 that real unification of the party was
achieved through the military defeat by Chiang of a rival
faction. For Chiang and the Kuomintang the next main task
was to deal with the Communists, who now had an effective
command structure and were armed. They were also
entrenched in their main "Red Bases" in rural areas in the
south and had considerable influence over the urban
population (map 1).
Despite the fact that both the Kuomintang and
Communists had a nationalist goal, they were more often
3 iNDUSntlJtL DEVELOPMIHT 1895-1949
Symboli in ■ iepffftftr.1 industries piessir in 1 694
Srmti*r ■ repeal ird£trterjg«fcH l a ?5-l 930'
■ ■ CrdinttJ
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N G O L I
enemies than allies, competing for the same power. Most
early Communists were also radical nationalists, and many
had been heavily involved in the activities of the
Kuomintang under Sun Yat-sen, making them doubly threat-
ening to Chiang's regime. Consequently, immediately after
the unification of the Kuomintang, Chiang launched five
military campaigns to encircle and suppress the
Communists in a rural area of Jiangxi province, where the
communist "Central Soviet Area" was located. In October
1934 he finally succeeded in overpowering the Communists,
forcing them to abandon their Jiangxi base and, under the
leadership of Mao Zedong, embark on the gruelling Long
March to the north. During 1935 Chiang's army was equally
successful in expelling units of the Red Army from other
Red Bases in the central region of the country, so that by
1936 the Communists who had survived the journey were
confined to an area in the province of Shaanxi around the
city of Yan-an.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
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▲ Despite the political and economic
turmoil of the first half of the 20th century,
China still developed a railway network.
Together with the country's system of
navigable rivers, the railways provided
transport for the manufactured goods and
metal ores produced by the Chinese
businesses that thrived as foreign firms, hit
by the Great Depression of 1 929-33, failed
or withdrew from China.
Japanese aggression
Chiang's strategy was similar to that of any new ruler: to
eliminate political and military competitors and reunite the
country. During the 1930s, however, his aims were largely
frustrated by domestic and international conditions. In
particular, as Japan developed its imperialist policy towards
mainland East Asia, successive Japanese governments
turned their attention on a weak and fragmented China.
From 1894 to 1944 they launched a series of invasions: on
Beijing in 1900, Shandong in 1914, Manchuria in 1931 and
Rehe in 1933, followed by a full-scale assault on east and
southeast China from 1937 to 1944 (pages 234-35).
The Communists, from their stronghold in Yan-an,
turned their attentions to fighting the Japanese. They
proved themselves a dynamic and efficient political and mil-
itary force, and took the opportunity to play the nationalist
card and thus rebuild their popularity. By contrast, Chiang's
concentration on suppressing his domestic rivals was by
now out of tune with the wishes of the general populace - so
much so that in December 1936 two of Chiang's top mil-
itary commanders mutinied in order to shift Chiang's
attention to fighting the Japanese. This became known as
the "Xi-an Incident", and resulted in the first example of co-
operation between the Kuomintang and Communists since
the death of Sun Yat-sen. In January 1941, however, the
Kuomintang troops ambushed and annihilated the main
force of the Communist-controlled New Fourth Army, thus
demonstrating just how fragile this co-operation was.
The war against the Japanese (1937-45) created oppor-
tunities for communist propaganda, recruitment and
military training which proved to be invaluable when the
civil war between the Kuomintang and Communists was
resumed immediately after the Japanese surrender. This
time the Communists were unbeatable: in their three main
military campaigns in the second half of 1948, the
Kuomintang were finally overpowered (map 2). The
Communists gained control of the mainland, the
Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, and the People's Republic was
established in October 1949. Putting the unification of China
before the defence of China had cost the Kuomintang dearly.
Economic expansion
During the period between the 1911 Revolution and the
birth of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese
economy struggled to survive the civil wars, the Japanese
occupation of large areas of the country and the misman-
agement of the Kuomintang. Some indigenous industrial
growth did occur along the coast and main waterways (map
3). This was largely due to the impact of the First World War
(1914-18) and the Great Depression (1929-33), when the
industrial powers relaxed their grip on the Chinese market,
creating opportunities for local businesses to become estab-
lished. Furthermore, while the Western gold standard
collapsed during the Depression (pages 228-29) - resulting
in severe financial crises in the West - China, which had its
own silver standard, remained largely unaffected.
▲ Sun Yat-sen trained as a doctor in the
early 1 890s, but he subsequently turned his
attention to revolutionary activity and was
exiled between 1 896 and 1 91 1 before
becoming the first President of the Republic
of China in 191 2.
T In 1 945, at the end of the Second World
War, the Communists (backed by Soviet
troops) were the first to move into areas
previously colonized by the Japanese. They
quickly established a strong foothold in the
northeast (both militarily and in terms of
popular support) from which to launch their
offensive against the Kuomintang, who had
spent much of the previous eight years in
the southwest. Fierce fighting ensued for
three years, with only a temporary truce in
1946. Despite US backing, Chiang Kai-shek
and the Kuomintang forces were eventually
forced to retreat to Taiwan.
s
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2 Civil w« 1945-49
| km roniroHed tjy Commuflisn 1 9U
^j Aoditwral area controlled by Communists Jurw 17W
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© LATE MANCHU QING CHINA 1800-1911 pages 198-99 © THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA SINCE 1949 pages 254-55
LATIN AMERICA
1914^5
A Venusliono Coaonzn was lender of ihe
ronsei vol ve tociicni in the Moxiccn
Revolution, ond (tuns lo power in the tote
ol opposition from ihe mote radical
1 1 mil unci Zopolo and "Pa mho' "I In.
Although Elected lo the presidency in 1 91 J
on the brak ol proposed agrarian ond social
reforms, his governments failure lo meet
its promises led lo his overthrow and
n in 1920.
► Following Ihe declaration of wot on
Germany by the United States in April 1 91 7,
most Central American and Caribbean stales.
heavily under ihe influence af the USA,
followed its lead. On Ihe other hand, none
ol the countries ol South America worn
further ihnn breaking oil diplomatic
n In rions - with the exception ol Irani,
which senl naval units lo ossisl Ihe Allies and
contributed substantial omounK of food and
row materials lo ttie war effort.
In ihe Second World Woe neatly nil
Centrul American ond Caribbean countries
declared wot on the Axis powers at Ihe
some lime as the USA, and Mexico followed
soon afterwords. By February 1942 all the
countries of South America except Argentino
and Chile hod severed relations with Ihe
Axis powers, aligning themselves with rhe
Allies as "associated nations'* While mast
declared war over the next two years, some
hu ng bac.li until, by early 1 945. il become
clear that failure lo do so could lead lo
exclusion from the projected United Nations.
The first halt of the; 20th Century saw many major
changes in the economic And social structure of the
countries of Latin America. Kxport-led growth hascd
on the production of primary products (mostly minerals or
agricultural floods ), which had resulted in appreciable
economic expansion butt ire 1914, was shown to be severely
flawed. At the same time the oligarchies whose socio-
political dominance had been well-nigh absolute for most of
the 19th century found their control of the state challenged
by an emerging middle class. Meanwhile the majority of the
population, who had previously been excluded from partici-
pation in the state, began to feature in both cultural and
political debates. Finally, the dominant Imperial power of the
l'Jth century - Britain - was displaced by the United States
Vi [.\kkaiii t: i:<:< >n< imi ks
The problems underlying Latin America's dependence cm
the production of raw materials were initially felt as a result
of the dislocation ol world trade during the First World War
(t°T4-18). Latin America, which at this stage relied largely
on foreign banks for supplies of credit and on foreign ship-
ping for transporting its goods, found itself isolated from
international finance and trade. Production fell, imports
(including food) were in short supply, and there was a high
level of mass unrest. The disadvantages of export-led growth
became increasingly clear; Latin American economies,
especially ihe smaller ones, found themselves over-reliant
on one or two products, the prices of which were vulnerable
to fluctuations in the weather, the emergence of new centres
Of production or substitute products and raw materials.
Economic growth tended to follow a "boom— bust" cycle,
which made il difficult for countries to plan ahead or allo-
cate resources rationally. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 and
the ensuing ( ireat Depression (ficc^ex 22ft-29) led to the col-
lapse of the world market on which Latin America had
relied for its exports. In the 1930s Latin American countries
could do little more than try to defend themselves against
the effects of the Depression. However, a consensus began
to develop - at least in the more advanced economies
(Argentina. Brazil, (Utile and Mexico) where a limited indus-
trial base oriented towards the internal market had already
evolved - thai Latin .America needed lo adopt an economic
strategy of urgent industrialization.
Political chance
The early 20th century saw the first active participation by
the Latin American middle classes in political life. These
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disparate
groupings of
professionals,
small business
owners. bureau-
crats and industrialists
lacked the economic power
their counterparts in 19th-
century Europe enjoyed as a result
of [he leading role they played in indus-
trialisation. Even so, governments that
reflected the expanding political role of the
middle classes came to power in most of the leading
countries during this period, for example in Argentina
(1916), Chile (1920), Peru (1919) and Mexico ( 1920). Their
challenge to oligarchic power was incomplete and compro-
mised - except in Mexico, which in 1910-20 experienced
the world's first major social revolution of the 20th century.
The outcome was to consolidate the political and economic
dominance of a bourgeoisie committed to capitalist mod-
ernization. The revolution destroyed the rxilitieal position of
the oligarchy, and their economic strength was eroded over
the next two decades by means of a programme of agrarian
reform that redistributed large landed estates.
In all the major Latin American countries during the
early decades of the 20th century, the issue of how to incor-
porate the majority of the population into national life began
to be debated Immigration and internal migration meant
that the poor were becoming increasingly visible in the
rapidly expanding towns and cities (map 1). Intellectuals
and politicians, in particular those from the middle classes,
became increasingly aware of the political importance of
the poorer sections of society. National identities based on
"the people" were proposed: images of American Indians
and gauohos (Argentine cowboys) were celebrated as
national archetypes. This did not necessarily mean that the
poor themselves were treated any hetter, although measures
were taken in Mexico to improve the lot of the Indians.
Increasing US influence
The Spanish-American War of 1898, which had resulted in
the ejection of Spain from Latin America by the United
States, signalled the rise of the United States as an imper-
ial power in the region [map 2). Although Washington was
reluctant to adopt a 19th-century style of colonialism (only
Puerto Rico was governed as a colony), the United States
consolidated its dominance in both trade and investment
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ATLAS OF WOI1D mStW: PHI 3
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in raw material production, especially minerals. By the end
ol' ilit I Mill Is it had effectively displaced tile European
powers from Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean,
During the Second World War the US administration
ensured the production of raw materials necessary to the
Allied war effort by means of Lend- Lease aid agreements.
Consequently, by I'M 5 the United States had also secured
hegemony in South America, increasing US dominance in
Latin America during this period is reflected in the fact
that, whereas many Latin American states had remained
neutral in the First World War (mop J), most followed the
United States into the Second World War after the Japanese
bombing of Pearl Harbor in December l'>41 {map 4). By
this stage it was apparent to the governments of Latin
America that only the United States could launch an
effective defence of the western hemisphere.
The rise of the mii.ii tin
One final change that occurred during this
period, which w as to have a major effect
on Latin American politics after the
Second World War, was the rise of the
military. With the consolidation of
central state control in most
countries during the late 10th
century, the armed forces had begun
a process of professionalization,
mostly with the help of European
advisers, which by the 1920s had
given them a strong sense of
corporate identity. Military coups took
place in Argentina, Israzil and Peru in
1030. At this stage the military was
content iti intervene only briefly in the
political process, hut it was increasingly
acquiring the conviction - subsequently to
prove so detrimental lo the maintenance of
democracy in Latin America - that it alone
was the institution which could best serve the
national interest.
▼ Al Ihe beginning of the 20lh century ihe
United Stales, professed itself reluctant to
become a colonial power along ihe lines of
some European countries in Africa and Asia.
Howe™, il was enxkws lo protect its own
economic interests in the Caribbean and
Central America. The 'Plall Amendmeat",
o douse in ihe Cuban (onsliigtkin of 1 9 01
ond in the tteuly ot 1903 between the
United. Slates and Cuba, entitled ihe United
Stales lo intervene in Cuban internal attain
- o rigM il exert ised on more than one
occasion. Elsewhere, il moved swiftly to
repress regimes ft fell rnigjil jeopardize
favourable trading arrangements.
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A Oaring Ihe period 1950-51) Ihe capital
cities at alf Latin American countries
increased in site by between 100 and 300
per real. Rapid urbanization was caused in
pott by the large number of European
i, but also by the a
people from rural areas into the cities. By
1 950 aver SO per cent at the populolions of
countries such as Uruguay, Argentina, Chile
ond Venezuela lived in urban aieas.
1 USmJwiKuJijrnorslBSa-lTOmdlyM-)
2 IftnflicjYiriiermimlW, mi ml IB*
3 US mui«r( presence 1912-25 and 1927-33
4. US miliruiv occupation ni V«rxnir 191*
5 Panama Canal opened in ?one under LIS sovereignly 191*
6 US military mlervEfilwn rani wnpohan 1915-34
7 Gejiejd P«urwij irworjes from the iiarth 1^16-1?
t USrnitynl»errtiw(nlom*^tal$lo-}«
9 fliyaifrfhumarroi Treaty seftires US Dahon an aiftmatFrt comrl ibuiu 191 6
10 US Mamies (ninsSwrJ in qtiasrwig strike acfian 1917-22
11 Si Tharrms, St Jabn nnd St Ooik oocght by US fram Denmark
in 1 9 1 7 one! rnramed Vfiam Islands ot liie United States
17 USA piotecri off camesswns 1 9 IS- 20 by nanrecngniJiun of Tlnoco regime
11 General (rowfta sonr to supervise Cuban polinccl process 1 9 1 9 - 22
r-
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© LATIN AMKKICA Wl) THE CARIBBEAN POST-INDEPENDENCE IN.1U-ISU-4 pnjtss 192-93 Q LATIN AMERICA S1N( IE l'J-i5 mtfes 258-59
THE GREAT DEPRESSION
1929-33
1 The effect of the Depression in North America
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k The Depression reused industrial
production in the United Stales and Canada
la decline by over 30 per cent leading to
massive unemployment, particularly in die
United Stales. People roigraled in search
of vmri, some of whicn me o direct resuh
of l)S government spending under ihe He*
Deal hunched in 1 TO. It is noliceobk
however, thai Ihe highesl expenditure per
capita was ml necessarily in those areas
most depressed, such as the Deep South,
but in areas where Ihe Demean!
government win mosl anxious to win
political support at the neil election
T Every country in Europe experienced a
drop in industrial production during the
Depression, with the northeast being worst
hit. In Germany dissatisfaction with Ihe high
unertiplaymenl cote provided a pkrlform on
which Hitler and the Nazi Party come to
power in 1 TO.
9 Jf
7 The effect of the Depression in Europe
■ DtdmnakiiMiMawiofowWT
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The Great Depression of 1929-33 was the most severe
economic crisis of modern times. Millions of people
lost their jobs, and many farmers and businesses
were bankrupted. Industrialized nations and those supply-
ing primary products (food and raw materials) were all
affected in one way or another. In Germany and the United
States industrial output fell by about 50 per cent, and
between 25 and 33 per cent of the industrial labour force
was unemployed.
The Depression was eventually to cause a complete turn-
around in economic theory and government policy. In the
1920s governments and business people largely believed, as
they had since the 19th century, that prosperity resulted
from the least possible government intervention in the
domestic economy, from open international economic rela-
tions with little trade discrimination, and from currencies
that were fixed in value and readily convertible. Few people
would continue to believe this in the 1930s.
The main areas of Depression
The US economy had experienced rapid economic growth
and financial excess in the late 1920s, and initially the eco-
nomic downturn was seen as simply part of the
boom-bust-boom cycle. Unexpectedly, however, output con-
tinued to fall for three and a half years, by which time half
of the population was in desperate circumstances (map 1). It
also became clear that there had been serious over-produc-
tion in agriculture, leading to falling prices and a rising debt
among farmers. At the same time there was a major banking
crisis, including the "Wall Street Crash" in October 1929.
The situation was aggravated by serious policy mistakes of
the Federal Reserve Board, which led to a fall in money
supply and further contraction of the economy.
The economic situation in Germany (map 2) was made
worse by the enormous debt with which the country had
been burdened following the First World War. It had been
forced to borrow heavily in order to pay "reparations" to the
victorious European powers, as demanded by the Treaty of
Versailles (1919) (pages 220-21), and also to pay for indus-
trial reconstruction. When the American economy fell into
depression, US banks recalled their loans, causing the
German banking system to collapse.
Countries that were dependent on the export of primary
products, such as those in Latin America, were already suf-
fering a depression in the late 1920s. More efficient farming
methods and technological changes meant that the supply
of agricultural products was rising faster than demand, and
prices were falling as a consequence. Initially, the govern-
ments of the producer countries stockpiled their products,
but this depended on loans from the USA and Europe. When
these were recalled, the stockpiles were released onto the
market, causing prices to collapse and the income of the
primary-producing countries to fall drastically (map 3).
New interventionist policies
The Depression spread rapidly around the world because the
responses made by governments were flawed. When faced
with falling export earnings they overreacted and severely
increased tariffs on imports, thus further reducing trade.
Moreover, since deflation was the only policy supported by
Percentage of industrial workers unemployed in 1 933
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
economic theory at the time, the initial response of every
government was to cut their spending. As a result consumer
demand fell even further.
Deflationary policies were critically linked to exchange
rates. Under the Gold Standard, which linked currencies to
the value of gold, governments were committed to maintain-
ing fixed exchange rates. However, during the Depression
they were forced to keep interest rates high to persuade
banks to buy and hold their currency. Since prices were
falling, interest-rate repayments rose in real terms, making it
too expensive for both businesses and individuals to borrow.
The First World War had led to such political mistrust
that international action to halt the Depression was impos-
sible to achieve. In 1931 banks in the United States started
to withdraw funds from Europe, leading to the selling of
European currencies and the collapse of many European
banks. At this point governments either introduced exch-
ange control (as in Germany) or devalued the currency (as
in Britain) to stop further runs. As a consequence of this
action the gold standard collapsed (map 4).
Political implications
The Depression had profound political implications. In coun-
tries such as Germany and Japan, reaction to the Depression
brought about the rise to power of militarist governments
who adopted the aggressive foreign policies that led to the
Second World War. In countries such as the United States
and Britain, government intervention ultimately resulted in
the creation of welfare systems and the managed economies
of the period following the Second World War.
In the United States Roosevelt became President in 1933
and promised a "New Deal" under which the government
would intervene to reduce unemployment by work-creation
schemes such as street cleaning and the painting of post
offices. Both agriculture and industry were supported by
policies (which turned out to be mistaken) to restrict output
and increase prices. The most durable legacy of the New
Deal was the great public works projects such as the Hoover
Dam and the introduction by the Tennessee Valley Authority
of flood control, electric power, fertilizer, and even education
to a depressed agricultural region in the south.
The New Deal was not, in the main, an early example of
economic management, and it did not lead to rapid recov-
ery. Income per capita was no higher in 1939 than in 1929,
although the government's welfare and public works policies
did benefit many of the most needy people. The big growth
in the US economy was, in fact, due to rearmament.
In Germany Hitler adopted policies that were more inter-
ventionist, developing a massive work-creation scheme that
had largely eradicated unemployment by 1936. In the same
year rearmament, paid for by government borrowing, started
in earnest. In order to keep down inflation, consumption
was restricted by rationing and trade controls. By 1939 the
Germans' Gross National Product was 50 per cent higher
than in 1929 - an increase due mainly to the manufacture
of armaments and machinery.
The collapse of world trade
The German case is an extreme example of what happened
virtually everywhere in the 1930s. The international economy
broke up into trading blocs determined by political allegiances
and the currency in which they traded. Trade between the
blocs was limited, with world trade in 1939 still below its 1929
level. Although the global economy did eventually recover
from the Depression, it was at considerable cost to interna-
tional economic relations and to political stability.
4 Countries on the gold standard 1 929-34
im ZU
▲ Countries around the world that supplied
raw materials for the factories of the
industrialized nations were hit by the drop
in production during the Depression. Chile,
for example, saw its exports drop by over
80 per cent, and India and Brazil suffered
a fall of over 60 per cent.
< Hie gold standard linked currencies to
the value of gold, and was supported by
almost every country in the world. From
1931, however, countries began to leave the
standard, leading to its total collapse by
1936. Although at the time this was seen as
a disaster, it actually presented opportunities
for recovery in many countries, allowing
governments to intervene to create
economic growth.
© OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1918-39 pages 220-21 O THE RISE OF FASCISM 1921-39 pages 230-31
THE RISE OF FASCISM
1921-39
▲ Benito Mussolini started his political life
as a socialist and was imprisoned for his
opposition to Italy's expansionist activities in
Libya in 1 91 1-1 2. By the 1 920s, however,
he had changed his views and used his
considerable rhetorical powers to whip up
popular support for his fascist policies of
nationalism, anti-socialism and state control
of industry and the economy.
► The Treaty of Versailles of 191 9
assigned the disputed Soar region to League
of Nations protection, and denied Germany
military access to the Rhineland, the region
of western Germany bordering France.
However, a plebiscite in Saarland in 1935
produced 90 per cent support for German
rule, and in 1936 Hitler ordered troops into
the Rhineland as a gesture of defiance.
In March 1 938 the German Anschluss
(annexation) of Austria was achieved with
support from Austrian fascists, and in
October, following the Munich Pact (drawn
up by Britain, France, Germany and Italy),
Germany took over all regions of
Czechoslovakia with a population more than
50 per cent German. The Czech government
(by then under a dictatorship) ceded the rest
of Bohemia-Moravia in March 1939, with
Slovakia becoming a German puppet state.
On 1 September the Germans began their
attack on Poland, and the British and French
declared war. They did not, however, send
troops to aid Poland, which, attacked from
the east by the Soviet Union and heavily
outgunned, was forced to surrender.
In the years between the two world wars, a political and
socio-cultural phenomenon known as fascism arose in
Europe. Its exact form varied from country to country,
but it was most commonly characterized by chauvinistic
nationalism coupled with expansionist tendencies, anti-
communism and a ruthless repression of all groups
presumed dissident, a mass party with a charismatic leader
who rose to power through legitimate elections, and a
dependence on alliances with industrial, agrarian, military
and bureaucratic elites.
Fascism in Italy
Fascism first gained prominence in Italy, where the National
Fascist Party (PFI) was founded by Mussolini in 1921.
Mussolini possessed a talent for arousing enthusiasm and
giving a sense of power and direction to a society in crisis.
Through coercion, indoctrination and the creation of the
cult of himself as "II Duce" (the leader), he was able to
balance the different interests of his supporters. His nation-
alist rhetoric attracted war veterans, while his promise to
deal with the threat of revolutionary socialism won the
support of the lower middle classes and a proportion of the
peasantry. Some workers saw the fascist syndicates as an
appealing alternative to socialist unions, while landowners
and industrialists made large donations to fascist groups
because they battered peasant and labour organizations into
submission. Most importantly, the political establishment
tolerated fascism and helped pave the way for Mussolini's
rise to power; with the much celebrated "March on Rome"
in 1922, Mussolini, now Prime Minister, signalled the begin-
ning of a new era.
Mussolini's foreign policy wavered between aggression
and conciliation. In 1923, two weeks after capitulating to
1 Expansion of the Italian
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A As part of his plan to revive Italian
national pride, Mussolini sought to create an
Italian empire comparable to those of
Britain and France. He not only expanded
Italy's Libyan territory, but in 1 935
launched a successful assault on Ethiopia.
He also extended Italy's territories on the
eastern Adriatic coast.
2 Expansion of Maii Germany
1933-39
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
the British over the "Corfu incident", he occupied Fiume
(map 1), before concluding a treaty of friendship with
Yugoslavia in a failed attempt to break the "Little Entente"
(pages 220-21). In 1935 Italy formed an accord with France
and joined in condemnation of German rearmament before
invading Ethiopia in October 1935, thereby alienating itself
from both Britain and France. A rapprochement with
Germany was inevitable, and in 1936 the "Rome-Berlin
Axis" was formed. Italy joined Germany in assisting the
Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War, further alienating itself
from the rest of Europe, and in May 1939 signed the "Pact of
Steel" with Germany. In April 1939 it attacked Albania.
Fascism in Germany
Hitler's rise to power in 1933 can be seen partly as a product
of the harshness of the Treaty of Versailles (1919), which
placed an economic noose round the neck of the Weimar
Republic. The Great Depression in the early 1930s (pages
228-29) weakened the Republic further, while Hitler's
National Socialist German Workers' Party (the "Nazis") was
increasing its support. In 1932 it became the largest single
party and Hitler was appointed Chancellor in January 1933.
Hitler's absolute belief in the superiority of the "Aryan
race" led to a series of legislative measures (1933-38) aimed
at excluding Jews from German government and society,
culminating in a programme of extermination: the "Final
Solution" (pages 232-33). The regime's emphasis on ideo-
logical conformity led to heavy censorship, while the Nazis
mobilized the German youth to provide a new base of mass
support. The first phase of Hitler's economic plans aimed to
reduce the level of unemployment, while in the second
phase Germany was intended to achieve self-sufficiency both
in industry and agriculture, a goal by no means realized.
Hitler's foreign policy was, however, more successful
(map 2). With the backing of an army that had been
increased to more than twice the size allowed by the Treaty
of Versailles, he managed to end German isolation in Europe
through the Anglo-German Naval Pact of 1935 and to
remilitarize the Rhineland in 1936. In 1938 Austria was
virtually incorporated into the Reich, as was the German-
populated Sudetenland - an act accepted by Britain and
France with the signing of the Munich Agreement in
September 1938. Further gains took place in March 1939,
% t<iip
3 The Spanish Civil War 1 936-39
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▲ During the Gvil War Spain became a
battleground (or fascist Germany and Italy
(which backed the Nationalists) and the
communist Soviet Union (which backed the
Republicans). Semi-fascist Portugal allowed
German supply lines across its territory.
and the signing of the Pact of Steel with Italy in May 1939
was followed by the Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet
Union in August. Confident that Britain would not
intervene, Hitler invaded Poland on 1 September 1939. The
Second World War had begun.
The Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War (1936-39) arose following the col-
lapse in 1930 of Miguel Primo de Rivera's seven-year
dictatorship, and the three-year rule of the left-wing Prime
Minister Azana, whose egalitarian reforms provoked bitter
opposition on the part of the Establishment. In 1933 Azana's
government was succeeded by a series of centre-right coali-
tion governments, which dismantled his reforms and
resulted in social unrest. By the time of the 1936 elections
Spain was polarized into two political camps, each consist-
ing of a broad alliance: the Popular Front (Republicans) -
made up of socialists, communists, liberals and anarchists -
and the National Front (Nationalists) - comprising monar-
chists, conservatives and a confederation of Catholics. The
Popular Front won the elections and Azana formed a new
government, intending to reintroduce all his earlier reforms.
The army resolved to take action against the Republic.
General Franco, previously exiled by Azana to the Canaries,
invaded Spain from Morocco and laid siege to Madrid in
November 1936 (map 3). He was supported in his campaign
by the fascist Falange, a party founded in 1933 by de Rivera.
The conflict attracted international interest, with Italy
and Germany supporting the Nationalists and the Soviet
Union the Republicans. The German bombing of the Basque
town of Guernica caused an international outcry, but
neither Britain nor France was prepared to confront Hitler
over his assistance to Franco. When the Soviet Union
decided to end its assistance to the Republicans, a
Nationalist victory was assured. By spring 1939 Franco's
government was recognized by most of Europe, and Spain
entered an era of ruthless repression.
Right-wing dictatorships
In the 1920s and 1930s a number of right-wing dictatorships
were established in Europe, both in agrarian and industri-
alized societies (map 4). They were undoubtedly influenced
in their rhetoric and practice by the German and Italian
models, but were also shaped by each country's indigenous
features. Many of these dictators were uncharismatic
figures, who actually regarded fascist movements and
organizations as a threat to their rule. Only the Nazi
dictatorship, with its aggressive expansionism, racism, and
nationalist and militarist ideology, represented the full
expression of fascism.
▲ During the 1 920s and 1 930s right-wing
dictatorial regimes were established across
Europe and the Iberian Peninsula. However,
many dictators, such as Horthy in Hungary
and King Carol of Romania, regarded fascist
organizations as a threat to their rule. Even
in Spain, under General Franco's regime, the
influence of the fascist Falangists was
replaced by the traditional bastions of order:
army, Church and monarchy.
© OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1918-29 pages 220-21 © THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN EUROPE 1939-45 pages 232-33
THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN EUROPE
1939-45
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▲ During the Second World War almost the
whole of Europe came under Axis control.
After Germany's invasion of western Europe,
and its attempts to bomb Britain into
submission, for three years the war was
concentrated on the Eastern Front, with
German troops sweeping across the western
Soviet Union. During 1942, however, they
became bogged down, with losses in the
north outweighing gains in the south. In
February 1 943 the Soviet Union broke the
siege of Stalingrad and the Germans were
forced to retreat. At the same time, their
forces in North Africa were also fleeing to the
safety of Italy. The Germans fought a strong
rearguard action, however - in the east, in
Italy and, from June 1 944, in western
Europe, with the Allied troops eventually
meeting up just west of Berlin in May 1945.
The war in Europe (1 September 1939 - 7 May 1945)
was not one war but many. It began as a struggle for
supremacy in Europe, but soon engulfed North Africa,
the Atlantic and the Soviet Union. In December 1941, with
Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and Germany's declaration of
war against the United States (pages 234-35), the conflict
became truly global.
The French and British decision to contest Hitler's bid
for European hegemony, after his invasion of Poland, took
the Nazi leader by surprise. The practical implications were,
however, limited. Belated rearmament meant that France
and Britain could do little to prevent Germany and the
Soviet Union dismantling Poland under the German-Soviet
Non-Aggression Pact of 23 August 1939. Nevertheless, the
Allies - at this stage, Britain, France and the Polish govern-
ment in exile - were confident that Hitler could be forced
by economic pressure into compromise. The initial seven-
month period of calm, known as the "Phoney War", thus
favoured the Allies, but a spate of spectacular military oper-
ations in the spring and summer of 1940 saw first Denmark
and Norway fall to the Germans, then Belgium and the
Netherlands (map 1). France was brought to its knees in six
weeks. Puppet regimes, or direct rule from Germany, were
imposed on the occupied territories, while an area of
France, plus its overseas empire and fleet, was allowed to
form the "Vichy" regime under Marshal Petain (map 2).
During the next year Berlin consolidated and extended
its political influence and control. Hitler's fascist partner,
Mussolini, brought Italy into the war on 10 June, and the
"Axis" was further strengthened with the signing of the
Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy and Japan on 27
September. The Balkan states soon became German satel-
lites (map 2), and the remaining neutrals were forced to
grant substantial economic concessions. Berlin, however,
failed to achieve its strategic objectives. Against expecta-
tions, Britain refused to sue for peace and withstood the
Blitz over the autumn of 1940. Unable to mount an invasion
of Britain, the German foreign ministry and navy embarked
on an "indirect strategy" against Britain.
Germany's submarine fleet was given the task of sever-
ing Britain's tenuous communications with the neutral
United States. However, although the U-boats cut deep into
Britain's reserves and posed a danger until the early summer
of 1943, the indirect strategy failed to meet German expec-
tations. Moreover, Italian efforts in 1940-41 to carve out a
Mediterranean empire complicated rather than comple-
mented Germany's war plans. Britain's maritime and
imperial resources allowed it to inflict a series of humiliating
setbacks on Italian forces in Egypt and Greece. Hitler was
compelled to come to the aid of his ally and was drawn into
campaigns of little strategic importance and marginal eco-
nomic benefit, which ultimately delayed his invasion of the
Soviet Union by several weeks.
The Eastern Front
On 22 June 1941 Hitler began his attack on the Soviet
Union (long regarded as the Nazis' principal ideological
opponent, despite the 1939 pact). As well as massive mili-
tary casualties, over three million Soviet prisoners of war
were deliberately killed, through starvation or overwork,
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
3 Central Europe 1 945
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▲ During the final months of the war a
race took place between the Western Allies
and the Soviet Union for control of German
territory. The two armies eventually met
west of the German capital Berlin and the
Austrian capital Vienna. They agreed to
divide these symbolically important cities
into zones of occupation, with the Soviet
Union controlling the surrounding territories
and thus holding the upper hand.
and millions of civilians were enslaved in German farms and
factories, where many of them died. By the time winter set
in, German forces had reached the suburbs of Moscow,
encircled Leningrad and controlled huge swathes of Soviet
territory (map 1).
The Soviet Union was ill-prepared to meet the German
onslaught. As military resistance crumbled, industrial plant
was relocated away from the advancing German forces. Aid
was forthcoming from Britain and the United States, and
although it was not critical, it did cover important shortfalls
in transportation and communications. On learning that
Japan had decided against attacking the Soviet Union in the
east, Stalin transferred troops from Siberia to meet the
German attacks in 1941. Better prepared for the harsh
climatic conditions, the Soviet forces counterattacked the
following spring, and while Germany made impressive gains
in the south, in an effort to control the Soviet Union's oil
resources, the retaking of Stalingrad by the Soviets in
February 1943 marked a turning point. Soviet success at the
massive tank battle of Kursk in July began Germany's long
retreat westwards, which ended when Berlin fell to Soviet
forces two years later. In terms of the number of casualties
suffered and of the resources expended, the Second World
War in Europe was predominantly a struggle between the
Soviet Union and Germany.
The "Final Solution"
The war against the Soviet Union allowed Hitler to set in
train the second component of his racial war: the elimina-
tion of European Jewry and those considered "defective".
During 1942 death camps were erected in the occupied
territories to exterminate Jews, gypsies, homosexuals and
other "racial enemies" (map 2). By the end of the war some
six million Jews, along with hundreds of thousands of other
victims, had been gassed in the death camps, or starved,
executed or worked to death in concentration camps. Of
those that survived the camps, many died as they were
forced to march away from the advancing Allies.
The demand for a second front
Given the enormity of the struggle facing the Soviet Union,
Stalin demanded immediate support from his western allies.
In practical terms, however, there was little that could be
done. Until late 1943 the contribution of Britain's strategic
bombing offensive was meagre, and was maintained largely
to placate Soviet demands for a second front. In November
1942, however, Anglo-American forces landed in French
Morocco and Algeria and, in conjunction with British forces
in Egypt, drove the Axis back to Tunisia (map 1). After five
months of fighting, the two Allied pincers met outside Tunis
and finally ejected Axis forces from North Africa by mid-
May 1943.
Against the wishes of the Soviet Union and the United
States, both of whom favoured landings in northern France,
Britain insisted on mounting landings in Sicily and Italy.
While these campaigns knocked Italy out of the war, they
failed to provide a strategic breakthrough into central
Europe. Competing strategic priorities and the U-boat
menace to the Atlantic convoys meant that it was only in
June 1944 that the Western Allies felt sufficiently confident
to create a second front by landing troops in Normandy.
German defences did not, however, crumble. Despite the
Allies' massive economic, military, intelligence and techni-
cal superiority, dogged German resistance forced the Allies
to fight every step of the way. In the face of inevitable defeat,
an opposition cabal tried to assassinate Hitler in July 1944,
but was quickly crushed. Indeed, only in the Balkans and
France did armed resistance to German domination meet
with any real success. Nazi Germany had to be ground down
by aerial bombardment and huge land offensives.
The political consequences of the total defeat of
Germany were enormous. Mutual suspicions between the
Allies quickly emerged as thoughts turned to the post-war
world and the division of the spoils (map 3). Culturally, the
war dealt a blow to western European civilization and con-
fidence from which it has struggled to recover. Though it
began, and was largely fought, in Europe, the Second World
War spelt the end of European influence across the globe.
▲ Despite the non-aggression pact with the
Soviet Union, signed by Foreign Minister
von Ribbentrop in August 1939, Nazi
Germany still regarded the communist
Soviet Union as its natural enemy, and
launched an attack in the summer of 1 941 .
This poster offered the German people the
stark choice of "Victory or Bolshevism".
T Nazi Germany retained control in its
conquered territories by installing puppet
governments in the Balkans and its own
administrations in Poland and the western
Soviet Union. Italian and German troops
jointly occupied Greece until the Italian
surrender in 1943. Concentration and
death camps were constructed, to which
"undesirables", and in particular lews,
were transported from across Europe.
1
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THE WAR IN ASIA
1931-45
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The war in Asia can be seen as a series of conflicts that
eventually escalated, with the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor and Southeast Asia in December 1941,
into a single clement within a larger global conflagration. It
began in September 10.11 when the Japanese army set
about seizing Manchuria as a first step in Japan's construc-
tion of an economically self-sufficient bloc under its control.
By 10.1.1 the conquest of Manchuria was complete and for
the next four years there was relative peace in East Asia.
TtlK SHVO-JAPAIVKSE WAK
In 10.17 an incident outside Beijing rapidly developed into a
full-scale war between Japan and China (map 1). The
Japanese forces proved to be superior in battle to their
Chinese counterparts and by the end of 19,18 Japan had
seized large areas of China and had forced Chiang Kai-shek's
government to retreat to Chongqing. However, despite the
scale of the defeat, the Chinese refused to surrender, a fact
which Japan blamed on Western support.
•4 Fierce fighting Hook place following the
Japanese invasion of China in 1 937, but
despite a series of defeats, the Chinese
refused la surrender.
s OVi ET
S °C,AUST REPUBLICS
T Ihe rale of the Japanese advance in
Soulheost Asia and the Pacific look the
Allied fortes by surprise. Dutch, British and
US territories fell like dominoes uniil Japan
over-stretdied itself in Ihe Battle of Midway
in June 1 9 '12. French Indochina, under the
Vichy government, was sympothetit to
Japan, as was Thailand. Japan ruled over its
new territories with an iron list and engaged
in atrocrtiss against bolh native populations
and European prisoners ol war.
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
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Japan's answer to this problem was to try to use the war
in Europe to its own advantage. In the summer of 1940,
following the German offensive into western Europe (pages
232-33), Japan sought, through diplomatic means, greater
access to the raw materials of the Dutch East Indies, French
Indochina and Thailand. At the same time, in an effort to
deter the United States from intervening in East Asia, it
signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. In
response, the United States and Britain introduced a policy
of economic sanctions, culminating, in July 1941, in an
embargo on oil exports to Japan. Faced with complete
economic collapse or war with the Allies, the Japanese
chose the latter and on 7 December 1941 launched a rapid
offensive into the western Pacific and Southeast Asia in the
hope of establishing an impenetrable defensive perimeter.
The Pacific War
The speed and effectiveness of the Japanese attack, sym-
bolized most notably by the assault on Pearl Harbor, took
the US, British and Dutch forces by surprise and led to a
series of humiliating defeats for the Western Allies in the
first six months of the war. In February 1942 the British
fortress at Singapore surrendered and by May the last US
garrison in the Philippines had capitulated (map 2). Japan's
victories led it to portray itself as the "liberator" of Asia from
European imperialism. During the course of the war nomi-
nally independent states were established in Burma and the
Philippines, and Japan's ally Thailand was allowed to annex
areas of Indochina, Burma and Malaya. In reality, however,
Japan ruled over its newly conquered territories with an
iron fist and engaged in atrocities against the native popu-
lation and European civilian detainees and prisoners of war.
The euphoria of victory was shortlived. In June 1942
Japan suffered its first major reverse when its naval expedi-
tion to seize the island of Midway ended in disaster with the
loss of four aircraft carriers. From this point Japan was on
the defensive and was out-manoeuvred strategically by the
United States, which, through its "island-hopping" campaign
in the western Pacific, was able to isolate the major
Japanese bases such as Truk and Rabaul (map 3). In addi-
tion, Japan's war effort was undermined by the fact that it
lacked the resources to replace its losses, with US sub-
marines cutting the supply routes to Japan.
By 1945 it was clear that Japan was on the retreat, but
the Americans feared that it would still cost many more
lives to bring about its defeat. This was confirmed when the
invasion of Okinawa in the spring of that year led to 10,000
American casualties. At first it was hoped that conventional
bombing of Japanese cities and Soviet entry into the war in
Asia would persuade Japan to capitulate, but by the summer
hopes had turned to the use of the newly developed atomic
bomb. The dropping of atomic bombs in early August on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki - which resulted in the death of
140,000 people - and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria,
proved to be the final blows for Japan, and on 15 August
Emperor Hirohito announced the country's surrender.
Although Japan's attempt to carve out an empire had
been defeated, the region did not return to the pre-war
status quo. In Southeast Asia the war helped to inspire the
rise of indigenous nationalism, which in turn laid the seeds
for the wars of national liberation that were to continue into
the 1970s (pages 250-51). In China the ineffectiveness of
Chiang Kai-shek's regime and its dismal war record led
many to look to the Chinese Communist Party as an alter-
native government and civil war soon erupted (pages
254-55). For the United States the war demonstrated the
importance of the western Pacific to its national security
and led to a permanent commitment of American forces to
the region. Japan, meanwhile, eschewed militarism and
sought economic expansion by peaceful means.
▲ It took the Allies more than three years
to regain territory that hod (alien to Japan
over a six-month period. Indeed, when
Japan surrendered on 1 5 August 1 945,
following the dropping of atomic bombs on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, its troops still
occupied o large part of Southeast Asia.
© THE MODERNIZATION OF JAPAN 1867-1937 pages 200-1 © JAPAN SINCE 1945 pages 252-53
THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE
1945-89
▲ Niklto Khrushchev emerged victorious
from the struggle for power that followed
Stalin's death in 1 953, and went on to
denounce Stalin's "reign of terror". He was
deposed by conservative elements within the
party in 1 964 and his grandiose agricultural
schemes and confrontational foreign policy,
which had led the world to the brink of
nuclear catastrophe during the Cuban Missile
Crisis of 1 962, was subsequently criticized.
T The 1 5 constituent republics of the Soviet
Union were formed in the 1 920s and 1 930s,
largely along ethnic lines. They were
dominated by the Russian Federation, by far
the largest and wealthiest of the republics.
Russia was itself divided for administrative
purposes into regions that had various
degrees of local autonomy.
The Soviet Union emerged from the Second World
War victorious, but devastated by the loss of 26
million people. Despite territorial gains in the west
(map 1 ) there was a severe shortage of labour, aggravated
by the deportation to Siberia or Central Asia of returning
prisoners of war, intellectuals from the newly gained terri-
tories and whole nations accused of collaboration with the
Germans (including the Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars
and Chechen-Ingush). The post-war Soviet Union consisted
of 15 soviet republics, some of which also contained
autonomous republics, regions and national areas (map 2).
After 1945 Stalin sought to re-establish control of the
Soviet Union. Collective farms that had been destroyed
during the war were reinstated, efforts were made to
develop heavy industry, and the government returned to
the use of terror as a way of controlling the population.
Stalinism was extended wholesale to Eastern Europe, and
by 1948 communist parties were in full control throughout
the region (map 1). The economic development of the
Eastern bloc was regulated from 1949 onwards by the
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and
defence aims were unified in 1955 with the signing of the
Warsaw Pact. Only Yugoslavia, where Tito had come to
power independently of the Red Army, developed a non-
Stalinist form of communism.
Khrushchev and Brezhnev
Stalin died in March 1953 and by 1956, following a secret
speech criticizing Stalin, Khrushchev had triumphed over
his rivals. Political prisoners were released from the labour
camps, and fresh emphasis was placed on the importance
of agriculture, housing and the production of consumer
goods, fn order to achieve this economic change of direc-
tion at least partial decentralization was considered
necessary. At the same time, Khrushchev poured money
into nuclear and space research: the Sputnik satellite was
launched in 1957, and in 1961 Yuri Gagarin made the first
manned space flight.
The results of this new approach were mixed, increased
liberalization led to dissident movements in Russia and
revolts across Eastern Europe. In 1956 both Poland and
Hungary rose against Soviet rule. In Poland the Communist
Party, under Gomulka, persuaded Khrushchev that a
reformed communism would not threaten party control,
but Hungary, which wanted to leave the Warsaw Pact, was
invaded. Khrushchev improved relations with Yugoslavia,
but his policies led to a split with China by 1960. Despite
Khrushchev's successful visit to the United States in
September 1959, relations with the West were soured by
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' GREECE
▲ In 1948 communist parties, supported by
the Soviet Union, were in control in Eastern
Europe, and from then on communication
between East and West was limited.
Yugoslavia refused to align itself with the
Soviet Union, Albania broke its economic
ties in 1961, and from 1968 Romania
developed a degree of independence.
the shooting down of a US reconnaissance plane over the
Soviet Union in 1960, the building of the Berlin Wall in
1961, and the siting of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba in
1962 (pages 242-43).
Khrushchev was ousted by the Politburo in 1964, but
economic reforms continued under Brezhnev and Kosygin
until the invasion, in 1968, of Czechoslovakia, where
Dubcek threatened the Communist Party's monopoly on
power. The Soviet Union then settled into a period charac-
terized by a return to a centralized economy, with quotas
that enforced quantity rather than quality. With the
growing competition in armaments and space technology,
and the Soviet Union's intervention on the side of the
socialists in the Afghan Civil War, the Cold War intensified.
Economic development
The post-war period saw a whole series of grandiose plans
for scientific management of the economy. Although
Stalin's plan for the "Transformation of Nature", through
windbreaks and shelter belts across the Ukraine, was
shelved in 1953, Khrushchev's "Virgin Lands" scheme to
grow maize across northern Kazakh SSR (map 3) was
implemented. The resulting soil erosion ruined 40,000
square kilometres (15,440 square miles) of land and forced
the Soviet Union to import grain. His scheme of the early
1960s for supranational economic sectors across Eastern
Europe, with the north concentrating on industry and the
south on agriculture and raw materials, failed due to
HtUS OF WOULD HISTOM: PHI 5
Romanian nationalism and caused Albania to establish
closer links with China, A plan in 1971 for a giant com-
puter grid to manage the whole Soviet economy was never
implemented, and neither was the scheme to huild a canal
system that would have reversed the flow of several
Siberian rivers in order to irrigate Central Asia,
Since 1917 "progress" had been envisaged as smoking
factory chimneys and increased industrial production.
However, Soviet economic growth rates of 5-6 per cent in
the 1960s dropped to 2.7 per cent in 1 976-80, and to I) per
cent in the early 1980s. Defence costs, the Afghan War and
support for the countries of Eastern Europe were more
than the economy euuld sustain. Rising expectations and a
widespread black market led to labour unrest. Subsidies on
food and housing took up large parts of the budget, and
poor-quality consumer goods left people with little on
which to spend their wages, resulting in money being put
into private savings instead of back into the economy.
There were, however, successes in military and space
technology, and in drilling for oil and natural gas, although
exploitation of the Eastern bloc's rich mineral resources
led to serious pollution - both in industrial areas and in
previously untouched landscapes (map J). The dangers
inherent in using poorly built and inadequately managed
nuclear power to generate electricity were brought home
to the world by the explosion at the nuclear power plant at
Chernobyl in 1986, although a larger, hut unreported,
nuclear accident had already occurred in 1957 at the test
site "Chelyabinsk 40" in the Urals.
In Eastern Europe economic decline also set in from
the mid-1970s onwards. As loans from Western hanks
became harder to arrange, and the Soviet Union ended
its subsidized oil exports in the mid-1980s, wages
▼ Heavy industry wos imIidI to the
development el the Soviet economy, bul
roused severe soil and waler pollution in
many areas. Even the empty wasles of
northern Russia were exploited lor The
valuable coat, ail and meld!
found ttieie.
in Poland fell by 17 per cent in the period 1980-86. hi
Yugoslavia wages fell by 24 per cent over the same period.
Declining living standards, environmental issues, pollution
and related health concerns heightened demands for a
release from Soviet domination.
Mikhail GORBACHEV
When Gorbachev came to power in 1985 it was clear that
the economy needed radical reform and that the cost to
the environment and to people's health had been cata-
strophic. Pipelines were leaking oil into the permafrost
across northern Russia, and most of Russia's major rivers
were polluted, in particular the Yenisei estuary around
Norilsk. Grand projects, such as the building of the
Baikal-Amur railway, had enabled the development of
further mining enterprises, but in so doing had contributed
to the destruction of the fragile ecosystem of Siberia.
Damage to Lake Baikal from industrial effluent was an issue
on which a growing green lobby focused, as was the drying-
up of the Aral Sea, which lost 75 per cent of its volume and
50 per cent of its area between I960 and 1989 due to over-
use of its tributaries for irrigation.
Gorbachev's policies of glasnost (openness), pere-
atraika (restructuring) and democratization initiated
reforms that were to lead to the withdrawal of Soviet
troops from Afghanistan in 1989, and to
the ending of Soviet control of
Eastern Europe.
3 The economy of the
Sown Union and Eastern
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WESTERN EUROPE
SINCE 1945
In the five decades after the end of the Second World War
Western Europeans experienced an unprecedented
increase in material prosperity. This was the outcome of
almost uninterrupted economic growth which, by the end
of the 20th century, had led to average per capita incomes
more than three and a half times as high as in 1950, with
the income gap between "rich" and "poor" countries within
Western Europe much smaller than in the immediate post-
war years. This rise in the material standard of living was
associated with the increasing integration and interdepen-
dence of the European economies and their reliance on
economic links with the rest of the world, underpinned by a
profound structural transformation in which the relative
importance of the agricultural sector declined. It was also
associated with increasing political integration.
Problems of post-war economic reconstruction
At least 40 million people died throughout Europe during
the Second World War and there was extensive damage to
factories, housing, transport and communications systems.
In 1945 Western European countries were faced with imple-
menting the transition from war to peace, reconstructing
industries and re-establishing international trade and pay-
ments. The length of time it took for pre-war output levels to
be restored largely corresponded to the amount of damage
inflicted on individual economies by the war (map 1).
The immediate post-war period saw severe food short-
ages and a large number of displaced people. Economic
T The European Economic Community
(EEC) was set up by the Treaty of Rome in
1 957 and was renamed the European
Community (EC) in 1 967. As a first step
towards stabilizing European currencies,
the European Monetary System came into
force in 1 979. The Treaty of European Union
was signed at Maastricht in February 1992,
and the single European currency system
(Euro) was launched on 1 January 1999.
A Those countries thai experienced land
lighting ended the war in 1945 with real
GDP levels below those of 1938, while
those Ihol hod not been subject to land
fighting come oul of the war with real
incomes above their pre-war levels (the
United Kingdom and neutral Spain,
s»»den ondSwitttrland)
A
2 Economic integration 1 94 5-9 S
ofhEK/K/IU:
| 1957 (omfrftCSC since 1952! ■ 193*
| 1973 | 1990
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MaJto ,S' e a
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
recovery was soon got under way. A major constraint,
however, was that Western Europe relied heavily on
imports, especially from the United States, but had neither
the currency reserves nor export dollar earnings to pay for
them. To preserve their foreign currency reserves, European
governments restricted imports from neighbouring coun-
tries, resulting in a low level of intra-European trade. In
order to combat these problems and build Europe into a
strong trading partner for the future, the United States
announced the European Recovery Program (ERP or
Marshall Plan). From 1948 to 1951 ERP funds enabled the
countries of Western Europe to continue importing goods
from the United States, and thus helped speed up the
process of economic recovery. In return the United States
put pressure on Western Europe to build and maintain con-
stitutional democracy as a bulwark against the spread of
communism and the revival of fascism.
Perhaps the most significant contribution of the ERP
was the revitalization of intra-European trade through its
support, in 1950, of the European Payments Union (EPU).
This restored limited convertibility between European cur-
rencies while allowing member countries to maintain
controls on imports from the dollar area. By 1958 the EPU
had fulfilled its role, but the rapid expansion in trade had
resulted in the increasing integration of the European
economies - a process that many sought to take further.
European integration
Early French post-war plans for reconstruction called for
the expansion of the national steel industry, while relying
on unrestricted access to coal from the German Ruhr area.
In 1950 France suggested the formation of a common
market for coal and steel. With the "Benelux" countries,
West Germany and Italy, it negotiated the Treaty of Paris
which, in 1951, created the European Goal and Steel
Community (EGSC). Its success encouraged member states
to push economic integration further to create a customs
union and common market - the European Economic
Community (EEC) - which began to operate in 1958. This
increased the liberalization of internal trade and provided
access to a larger market, while offering a protective shield
against non-members; it also enabled the implementation
of common policies. The EEC grew, via the European
Community (EC), into the European Union (EU) of 15
countries in 1995 (map 2). In 2004 this was enlarged by the
addition of a further ten countries.
In 1959 the United Kingdom, which at that point had
not signed up to the EEC, founded the European Free Trade
Association (EFTA), and was joined initially by six other
countries (map 2). Unlike the EEC/EC/EU, with its supra-
national institutional arrangements, EFTA was intergovern-
mental in nature. Yet with many of its members eventually
joining the economically and politically more powerful
Community, EFTA gradually lost its significance.
Economic growth in post-war Europe
Between 1950 and the mid-1990s all of Western Europe
experienced an increase in material prosperity (bar chart),
despite variations in the rates of economic growth between
countries. Moreover, by 1994 the gap in per capita income
between the poorest and the richest economies was much
smaller than in 1950. After 1973 practically all these
economies experienced a slow-down in growth whose
extent, however, differed between countries.
Western Europe's post-war growth was closely associated
with changes in the employment structure that saw a large
-scale shift of resources out of agriculture and industry,
especially into services (map 3).
Post-war politics
Closer economic integration was accompanied by gradual,
though incomplete, political convergence. Institutions of
parliamentary democracy had never previously been firmly
established in southern Europe. The army-backed dictator-
ship of General Franco in Spain lasted until his death in
1975, but was followed by the restoration of the monarchy
of King Juan Carlos, and free elections in 1977. Greece
experienced a bitter civil war, a military coup in 1967, and
seven years of dictatorship that gave way to a democratic
system only in 1974. Democracy did not come to Portugal
until 1985. Elsewhere in Western Europe democratic
systems did not escape problems. Post-war France went
through frequent changes of government until stability was
achieved under Charles de Gaulle in the 1950s. Italy not
only had many short-lived governments throughout the
second half of the 20th century but endured a serious crisis
of corruption at all levels of government in the 1990s.
The 1960s saw short-lived left-wing activism, especially
in Italy and Germany. In Germany the environmentalist
Green movement had limited electoral success in the
1970s. The challenge to consitutional democracy in the
1980s and 1990s came from extreme right-wing, essentially
racist, movements, which were most successful electorally
in France and Italy. Through most of the period from 1945
to the end of the century, power swung like a pendulum, or
was shared, between moderate social democratic or Labour
parties and moderate conservative parties. This was the
case under voting systems based on proportional represen-
tation that encouraged negotiation between political
groupings and, as in Britain, a "first-past-the-post" adver-
sarial system that encouraged competition between them.
■4 During the second half of the 20th
century employment patterns thonged
across Europe with the decline of the
agricultural sector and the rise, in particular,
of service industries.
Average annual growth of
gdp per capita throughout
Western Europe
i
▲ Western Europe experienced particularly
rapid economic growth from 1950 until the
early 1 970s. The large productivity gap
separating Europe and the United States in
the late 1 940s was rapidly reduced, and
repair to war-damaged economies and
changes in economic policy also created
growth. The price of raw materials remained
low and there was little competition from
the Asian economies. From the early 1 970s
onwards, however, although the Western
European economies continued to grow, they
did so at a much slower rate.
O THE SECOND WORLD WAR IN EUROPE 1939-45 pages 232-33
THE UNITED STATES
SINCE 1900
T Alter the Second World War people began
to migrate from the industrialized northeast
and Midwest to the Pacific region, where high-
technology industries were being developed.
By the end of the century California was not
only the most populous state but also an
international economic powerhouse.
Distribution of population in
1900
TOW POPULATION: Sa.024.000
1941
Total population: i3i,sfb,ooo
1996
Total population: UiMM
H
NwEfybnd
1 1
MdrfcAltoiH
1 1
ioslNorrhCBrtirJ
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PncnV
Since 1900 there have been many dramatic changes in
the nature of society in the United States. In 1900 the
population was around 76 million, of whom more than
half lived in either the northeast or Midwest (pie charts).
Over 87 per cent were white and just over 10 per cent were
African American. The life expectancy of an American born
in 1900 was 47 years, and only 4 per cent of the population
was over 65 years old. A large percentage still lived on
farms, and in the years before the motorcar the railroads
served as the lifeblood of the nation.
Over the coming decades great social, racial, technolog-
ical and economic changes were to create a very different
country. By the end of the century there were more than
270 million Americans. They were more racially diverse,
more spread out (map 1), lived longer (76 years on
average), were older (nearly 13 per cent were over 65) and
generally richer (with an average Gross National Product
per capita over five times that of the world average).
During the 20th century huge numbers of Americans
migrated to the west and southwest in search of new jobs
and greater opportunities. This mobility of labour helped
the USA to remain a more flexible and productive economic
power than other countries and was part of a realignment
in the economy which saw the percentage employed in
services increase from 40 to 76 per cent between 1920 and
1998. Meanwhile, employment in agriculture fell from 25 to
5 per cent and in industry from 35 to 19 per cent.
Immigration and civil rights
Immigration to the USA reached a peak in the early years of
the 20th century, but from the 1920s onwards a more
restrictive approach was adopted. A quota system was intro-
duced for each nationality, based on the percentage of the
existing US population of that nationality. This enabled
northern European immigrants to be favoured at the
expense of those from other regions of the world.
In 1965 the quota system was replaced by a permitted
annual total of immigrants. There was an increase in the
number of Hispanic Americans (people originally from
Latin America, Cuba and Puerto Rico) in US society. By the
end of the century they made up over 10 per cent of the
population and were the fastest-growing group in the
country. The size of other ethnic groups also increased dra-
matically, in particular those from Japan, the Philippines,
South and Southeast Asia. The Native American population
also grew in the last decades of the century, although less
dramatically: at the end of the 20th century they made up
around 1 per cent of the population.
In 1900 African Americans were politically and socially
marginalized, the majority living on farms in the Deep South
(map 2) where their parents or grandparents - if not they
themselves - had been slaves. While they were supposedly
guaranteed equal rights by the constitution, most southern
states, politically dominated by whites, enforced segrega-
tion. In many places they were discouraged from voting by
poll taxes, literacy tests and other intimidatory tactics.
The industrial boom of the early 20th century, coupled
with two world wars, created a need for factory workers in
the northeast and Midwest. Many African Americans
migrated there to find work and established neighbour-
hoods, with their own traditions and cultures, in cities such
as New York, Detroit and Chicago. Their political power was
still curtailed and, with the famous exception of Henry
Ford's automobile plants, African Americans were usually
given less prestigious and lower-paid jobs than whites.
The Civil Rights movement began in the 1950s with
pressure both from above and below. In 1954 the famous
Supreme Court decision Brown t> Board of Education
attacked the notion of state segregation. In the 1950s
African Americans protested against enforced segregation
and in Montgomery, Alabama they forced the town author-
ities to let them sit with whites on town buses (map 3).
Subsequently, not only the South but the USA as a whole
was forced to confront the issue of racial inequality. The
1960s were particularly turbulent, with legal victories for
equality being won in the face of continuing racism.
Political developments
These social changes acted as a catalyst for some important
political changes in the USA. At the beginning of the 20th
century the country's two major political parties, the
Republicans and the Democrats, were more sectional group-
ings - often with competing interests - than ideological
entities. The Democrats were loyally supported by the bulk
of southern whites, for reasons stretching back to
Republican rule during the Civil War, and were also often
backed by a large number of farmers from poorer western
states and different ethnic coalitions in the large cities. By
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
^ Encouraged by a ruling of the Supreme
Court in 1 955 against stole segregation in
Boucotion, the African-American atiiens of
Montgomery. Ahbamo followed Ihe bod ol
Rasa Ports, who refused lo give up her bus
seal to a white man. Ttiey began o boycott
of rhe dry's segregoled bus system Irnl
lasted mare than o year, ending in n legal
victory. In 1960 sit-in prolesls slatted in
restaurants and re foil aoilels, while in 1961
Freedom Rides - buses filled with protesters
ogoinsl segregation - began crossing the
Deep 5oulb, culminating in a march on
Washington in 1963 by !50,00tl people.
tlrkan-Amerkan discontent was expressed
k urban riots from Ihe mid' 1960s onwards,
spreading In California on ihe wesl const.
MEXICO
3 Distribution of non-white population and civil rights demonstrations from 1 955
Proportion of pooukirian narrdit* HM (eidarinj Hispoeitsl:
mfelfA ' I 20-ffl [ i • Ma^Wr^rsfaxKismiwi
lfi-70: ^| }B-W\ bBtwsHi]»55tmll)7i
2 DlSTRIIUTION OF NON-WHITE POfHUTWN 1 900
FtDpKtMfi of popoknwi nonwhie (enlurkig nspaiKsi:
(ZZ! mler!(K CD Z0-3OS B 40-WS
▲ In 1 900 African Americans remained
concentrated in the southern states. Native
Americans were scattered throughout the
West, on reservations and territories to
which they had been forcibly resettled in
the 19th century. Hispanic Americans lived
mainly in states that had been part of
Mexico before 1 848. By the end of the 20th
century the population of many states had
become more ethnically diverse (map 3).
The non-white percentage of the papulation
in the northeastern industrial regions, and in
California, Texas and New Mexico, had
increased markedly, partly as a result of
internal migration, but also due to a large
influx of migrant workers, many of whom
were illegal immigrants. Successive US
governments have placed restrictions on
immigration, starting with the law of 1862
prohibiting Chinese immigration. However,
illegal immigrants continue to find their way
into the country, the majority crossing the
border from Mexico, while others brave the
dangers of the sea crossing from Cuba.
contrast, the backbone of the Republican Party was the
middle-class business community and farmers in the north-
east and Midwest, though the party also garnered a large
part of the working-class vote. There were other, smaller,
parties, including the Socialists, but they invariably per-
formed poorly at election time.
The situation began to change significantly during the
era of the Great Depression (1929-33) and the subsequent
New Deal policies of Democrat President Franklin D.
Roosevelt (pages 228-29). Previously, African Americans
had, when allowed to vote, almost always supported the
Republicans (the party of Abraham Lincoln), but Roosevelt's
massive increases in government social spending caused
both they and many working-class white voters to switch
allegiance to the Democrats. As a result, the Democrats took
over the Republicans' previous role as the natural party of
government, and from the 1930s regularly won a majority
of the seats in Congress, especially in the House of
Representatives. However, during the 1980s a reverse migra-
tion of southern whites, often evangelical Christians, into
the Republican Party created a situation of approximate
balance. The parties have now developed more distinctive
ideologies, with the Republicans on the whole supporting
fewer taxes, less government regulation and smaller
government welfare plans than the Democrats.
Many of the changes that have occurred since 1900 have
led to an ongoing and emotional debate about what exactly
it means to be "an American". The traditional idea of a
"melting pot", whereby immigrants were expected to shed
many of their old customs in order to become fully
American, has been challenged, particularly on the Left, by
the idea of a "great mosaic". Ethnic minorities are now
encouraged by some to maintain their separate identities,
although other factions have fought this idea, believing that
it could undermine the cohesion of the American nation.
▲ The Reverend Martin Luther King started
his political life as leader of the Montgomery
bus boycott. His policy of passive resistance,
to which he adhered in the face of criticism
from more militant African-American
leaders, was based on the teachings of
Gandhi. He was a powerful orator, famous
for his "I have a dream" speech, first
delivered in 1963. Despite important
legislative victories won by the civil rights
movement, protests became increasingly
violent in the mid-1 960s - a situation that
was exacerbated when Dr King was
assassinated in 1968.
© THE INDUSTRIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES 1790-1900 pages 186-87
THE ROLE OF THE UNITED STATES
IN THE WORLD SINCE 1945
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A As the United States has become more
powerful economically it has extended its
area of involvement beyond the American
continent to Africa, Southeast Asia and
Europe. Although it has sometimes
considered it necessary to employ force to
defend its interests, in many instances
economic backing or, conversely, the threat
of trade sanctions has been sufficient to
achieve its objectives.
At the end of the Second World War the United States
dominated the globe. It not only had the world's
largest navy and air force, but it also dwarfed all other
national economies. With most major European and Asian
countries devastated by war, the United States produced half
of the world's goods in 1945. The question facing the United
States was what it should do with its tremendous power.
Before the Second World War US foreign policy had been
unpredictable. With much of the country firmly isolationist,
there was no national consensus as to what part the United
States should take in world affairs. Most Americans seemed
content to play a dominant role in North, Central and South
America (pages 226-27) but had little interest in intervening in
conflicts elsewhere. After the Second World War many of those
responsible for US foreign policy, such as President Truman
and Secretary of State George Marshall, considered isolation-
ism was untenable given the strength of the Soviet Union.
Although the United States and the Soviet Union had been
allies during the war, this relationship had been forced on
them by necessity and a huge ideological rift still existed. In
the period following the end of the war the Soviets increased
their domination of Eastern Europe {pages 236-37), and
many Americans worried that if the USA withdrew its forces
from Western Europe the USSR would eventually dominate
the whole continent. The USA, committed to free enterprise,
and hitherto dependent on Europe for a large part of its export
trade, was alarmed at the prospect of communist governments
restricting trade with the non-communist world. Likewise, the
Soviet government, led by Stalin, was suspicious of a Western
Hemisphere dominated by the USA, and expressed doubt that
capitalism and communism could peacefully coexist for long.
The Cold War years
The perceived threat posed by the Soviet Union eventually
proved decisive in the development of the United States into
an economic and military world power. President Truman
committed the USA to a policy of "containment", involving
resistance to the spread of communism anywhere in the
world. In 1949 the USA played a key role in the formation of
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (map 1),
which committed it to defending Western Europe. By this
time the "Gold War" between the USA and the USSR was a
reality and would continue to dominate international rela-
tions for the next four decades (poises 244-45).
There was a slight thaw in relations during the 1970s,
when the USA (under presidents Nixon, Ford, and Garter) and
the USSR (under General Secretary Brezhnev) adopted a
policy of "detente", whereby the two countries tried to estab-
lish closer links of mutual understanding. However, this policy
proved very controversial in the United States; many saw it as
a capitulation to communism and called for greater con-
frontation with the USSR. In 1980 Ronald Reagan, one of the
harshest critics of detente, was elected US president. He com-
mitted his country to rolling back the "evil empire", as he
described the Soviet Union, and began the largest peacetime
military build-up in the history of the United States.
Reagan and his advisers gambled that they could bankrupt
the Soviet Union without causing all-out war and without dam-
aging the US economy. In the end the policy seemed to work.
The USSR, even though it devoted a far larger proportion of its
economy to military expenditure than did the USA, found it
impossible to match the advanced technology of its rival. By
1989 Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev recognized that
drastic changes were needed in order to reduce international
tension and expand the Soviet economy. Gorbachev's liberal-
ization led ultimately to the break-up of the Soviet Union in
December 1991 (pages 262-63), as a result of which the United
States lost its major adversary and the Gold War came to an end.
Intervention worldwide
The policy of the United States during the Cold War was
eventually successful in destroying Soviet power, but it had
▲ In February 1945, Churchill, Roosevelt,
and Stalin met at Yalta to discuss plans (or
the post-war division of Europe. As the
leading superpower, the USA realized that
its pre-war isolationist policy was no longer
tenable, and that it had a major role to play
in the reconstruction of Europe and in the
encouragement of democratic regimes.
damaging repercussions for US international relations in
some parts of the world. The USA often felt it necessary to
overthrow or undermine regimes largely because they were
influenced by communist ideas, while at the same time
supporting manifestly corrupt and oppressive right-wing
regimes considered friendly to the USA. Cuba, Guatemala,
El Salvador, Nicaragua and Panama all had their govern-
ments either supported or besieged according to whether
they were perceived by the US government as loyal or
threatening (map 1). The most extreme example of US
intervention was the Vietnam War. President Kennedy com-
mitted US ground troops to Vietnam in the early 1960s in an
effort to "save" Vietnam and its neighbouring countries from
communism (pages 250-51), but even with more than
500,000 troops fighting in Vietnam the US government
could not "save" a people who did not wish to be saved.
During the war 60,000 US military personnel and two
million Vietnamese lost their lives, with millions more
Vietnamese left wounded, orphaned, and homeless.
Trading links and globalization
The United States strengthened trade with its American
neighbours during the second half of the 20th century, and
also looked westwards to the rapidly growing economies of
Southeast Asia and East Asia. Various trade agreements
reflected this shift of focus: the founding of the Organization
of American States (OAS) in 1948, the signing of the North
American Free Trade Agreement in 1992 (effective from
1994), and the founding of the Asia-Pacific Economic Go-
operation Organization in 1989 (map 2). In the 1990s, US
economic recovery encouraged the nation to play a leading
role in the push towards more open global trading markets.
The war on terrorism
On 11 September 2001, terrorists piloted two passenger aircraft
into the World Trade Center, New York City. Millions watched on
television as the towers collapsed. A third aircraft destroyed part
of the Pentagon in Virginia, and a fourth jet crashed in
Pennsylvania. More than 3,250 people died in the attacks. The
United States produced evidence linking the attacks with
Osama bin Laden, a Saudi dissident based in Afghanistan and
leader of al-Qaeda, a loose network of terrorist groups.
On 8 October 2001, after building an international coali-
tion against terrorism, US President George W. Bush
launched air strikes against Afghanistan, targeting al-Qaeda
bases and the Taliban government, which had refused to
hand over bin Laden. In December 2001, Afghan opposition
forces, backed by US and British special forces, overthrew
the Taliban regime and an interim government took office.
President Bush pledged a huge increase in US military
spending to continue the "war on terrorism".
As part of this war, a US-led invasion of Iraq was
launched on 20 March 2003. The regime of Saddam Hussein
collapsed within three weeks and the invaders became an
occupying force. This was still in place when a democrati-
cally elected Iraqi government was formed in 2005.
Atlantic
Ooea (i
2 US OVERSEAS TRADING COMMITMENTS 1 930S-1 990S
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▲ The North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), a tariff-free treaty
between the USA, Canada, and Mexico
signed in 1 994, was followed by even more
ambitious attempts to create wide free-trade
areas. Both the Organization of American
States (OAS) and the Asia-Pacific Economic
Co-operation (APEC) Organization
proclaimed their intention of establishing
free trade between their member states, in
2005 and 2020 respectively.
•4 On September 11, 2001, terrorists
piloted two hijacked passenger aircraft into
the twin towers of the World Trade Center,
New York City. The towers collapsed, killing
over 3,250 people - a higher number of
fatalities than at Pearl Harbor in 1 941 .
© THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1900 pages 240-41
THE COLD WAR
1947-91
▲ The phenomenal farce of the nuclear
bomb, which had been so effectively
demonstrated in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
August 1 945, dominated the Cold War
years, with both sides building up huge
arsenals of weapons. In 1 963, in the wake
of the near-disastrous Cuban Missile Crisis,
the United States and the Soviet Union
agreed a test-ban treaty. However, despite
the Strategic Arms limitation talks, which
culminated in the signing of treaties in 1 972
(SALT I) and 1979 (SALT II), and the
Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START),
which opened in 1 982, the destructive
capacity of the two superpowers continued
to grow.
► At the end of the Second World War
Korea, previously a Japanese colony, was
divided along the 38th parallel. North Korea
came under the control of a communist-
inspired, Soviet-backed regime, while South
Korea was supported by the USA. In June
J 950 North Korean troops advanced across
the 38th parallel in a bid to unify the
country. They had nearly gained control of
the entire peninsula when United Nations
(mostly US) troops landed both in the
southeast of the country and at Inchon,
behind North Korean lines.
The UN troops advanced almost to the
border with China, which reacted to this
apparent threat to its territory and launched
an attack in support of the North Koreans.
For the next two months the UN troops were
on the defensive, but by June 1 951 they
had driven the Chinese and North Koreans
back to a line north of the 38th parallel.
Protracted negotiations followed, with a
truce eventually being signed in July 1 953.
The war had resulted in an estimated four
million casualties.
The Gold War was an ideological, political and diplo-
matic conflict in the years 1947-91, between the
United States and its allies on the one hand and the
communist bloc led by the Soviet Union on the other.
Characterized by extreme tension and hostility, it had a
detrimental effect on international relations in this period.
At the Yalta Conference in February 1945 the United
States, the Soviet Union and Britain had agreed that free
elections would be held throughout Eastern Europe. It soon
became apparent, however, that the Soviet Union under
Stalin intended instead to fill the political vacuum in
Eastern Europe with communist governments loyal to
Moscow. By 1948 the governments of Poland, East
Germany, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia
had been transformed from multiparty coalitions, as envi-
saged by the Yalta Declaration, to governments composed
entirely of communists who adhered strictly to the ideolo-
gies, policies and practices of the government in Moscow
(pages 236-37). The "Iron Curtain", dividing the commu-
nist regimes from the rest of Europe, had fully descended.
The Truman Doctrine
Despite these events in Europe, President Truman of the
USA hoped that some form of co-operation with the USSR
could continue. In February 1947, however, when the
British announced that they were no longer able to provide
economic and military support for the Greek and Turkish
governments, the USA felt compelled to intervene. Not to
do so might allow Greece, in particular, to fall to the com-
munists, thus creating a threat to US global interests and
national security. The result was the "Truman Doctrine",
which stated that the USA would oppose any further expan-
sion of communist territory and would provide a financial
package to help Greece and Turkey defend themselves from
external interference. This was followed by the Marshall
Plan, which provided 813.5 billion in economic aid to the
war-torn countries of Europe. It was hoped that this would
combat the spread of communism across the continent, but
it was only partially successful because the states in Eastern
Europe refused, or were prevented by Moscow from accept-
ing, Marshall Aid.
The deepening of the war
Following the announcement of the Truman Doctrine, the
Cold War deepened (map 1 ) with the Berlin Blockade of
1948-49, a communist uprising in Malaya in 1948, and the
formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, when
the Chinese communists, led by Mao Zedong and supported
by the USSR, finally defeated the US-backed forces of
Chiang Kai-shek (pages 254-55). All these crises encour-
aged the creation of a string of Western military alliances to
deter any further expansion of communist territory, begin-
ning with the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) in 1949.
In the same year the USSR produced its first atomic
bomb, and the Cold War took on a new character. From
the point of view of the NATO countries the tension was
increased, while the USSR, knowing that it could match
NATO in nuclear capacity, gained in confidence. In 1955 it
established with other Eastern European countries a mili-
tary alliance known as the Warsaw Pact. Despite, or because
of, the huge arsenal of nuclear weapons stockpiled by both
sides, none was ever used in warfare. Indeed, the Cold War
never resulted in actual combat between US and Soviet
troops, the risk of nuclear weapons becoming involved being
far too high. Instead, it took on the form of an arms race -
and later a space race - and the provision of economic aid
and military equipment to other countries in order to gain
political influence and thus strategic advantage. In some
cases both sides intervened to defend their own ideology,
and in a few cases one of them sent in troops.
The Korean War of 1950-53, when communist North
Korea invaded South Korea, was one of the largest and
bloodiest confrontations of the Cold War (map 2). It marked
the beginning of over 12 years of intense global tension and
rivalry between the superpowers, which culminated in the
Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 (map 3). The discovery by the
USA of Soviet missiles being assembled on communist-led
Cuba, within easy range of the US mainland, led to the
gravest crisis of the Cold War. It almost resulted in a third
world war, the tension easing only when the Soviet leader,
Nikita Khrushchev, agreed to withdraw the missiles.
The thawing of the war
Over the next 20 years both superpowers attempted to ease
tensions and "thaw" the Cold War. The resulting "detente"
produced superpower summit meetings and agreements to
reduce nuclear arsenals. Meanwhile, competition between
the superpowers continued in Vietnam where, between
1964 and 1973, the US deployed hundreds of thousands of
troops to fight communist North Vietnamese forces who
were attempting to unify their country (pages 250-51).
In 1979 detente was abruptly ended when the USSR
invaded Afghanistan, producing a new period of tension and
hostility between the superpowers, and a fresh arms race.
This lasted until 1985 when the new Soviet leader, Mikhail
Gorbachev, began to de-escalate the Cold War by reviving
summit meetings and arms negotiations with the USA. He
also began a process of internal reform in the USSR itself
and gradually relaxed the Soviet grip on Eastern Europe.
This resulted in the collapse of communism throughout the
Eastern European bloc following the "People's Revolutions"
of 1989 and 1990 (pages 264-65), and the dissolution of the
Soviet Union (pages 262-63). With the demise of the USSR
and the formal dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991, the
Cold War came to an end.
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Ccrtflkls 'm which lb* USA, USSR and allies involved 1947-91:
1 Greek Civil War 1 947: USA gave aid la help defeat communists
2 Berlin Blockade 1 94M9: USSR attempted to Socre Frame, USA and Britain out
of West Berlin hy impming a blmkade wound ihe city
3 Malayan Emergency 1 948-40- UK troops defeated communist insurgents while
moving Malaya (awards independence
4 first Machines* War 1946- 54: French troops tried to pcevenl independence
movement from establishing communism in Vietnam
5 Korean War 1 950-53 (mop 2)
i Off-shore Island Crises 1 954-55. I95B: US diplomatic etforl and military support
to lemon averted M-sttjIe invasion by Olino in woke ol ornUery attodc
7 Guatemala 1 954: USA bodced right-wing toup
8 Hungary 1956: Uprising of liberal communists ctushed by Soviet troops
9 Vietnam Wot 1 959-75: US troops cSrertry invorvscj in war 1964-73
10 Second Berlin Crisis 19(1 : East German government netted Berlin Wall and closed all
but one ol access routes to ihe city; USA sent tanks lo Berlin
11 Laotian Crisis 1960-67: Civil war between US-backed and communist backed
lorces culminated in establishment ol provisional government ol unity
12 Cohan Missile Crisis 1962 (mop 3)
1 1 Dominican Republic 1 965: LISA, fencing communist takeover, sent troops to bock
government ol military junta
1 4 Czechoslovakia 1 W(: liberal communist government overthrown by troops ol
USSR and Warsaw Pact allies
1 5 Chile 1 973: LIS-botked right-wing forces overthrew Allende's socialisl government
1 6 Angola 1 974-90: Civil war between MP LA {backed by Soviet-funded Cuban troops)
and the FN LA and Unitu (backed by South Africa]
1 7 Namibia 1 975-91: Communist -hocked farces fought far independence ol
Namibia, illegally incorporated inlo South Africa
1 8 Nicaragua 1 979: US bricking lailed to prevent left-wing Sandinistas deposing
right-wing regime
1 9 Afghanistan 1979-89: Soviet troops occupied the country to preveni overthrow of
pro-Soviet regime
A In 1 962 US reconrnrssam fights
detected evidence thai the Soviet Union was
building nuclear missile bases on Cuba,
within ronge of Ihe US mainlcnd. A US roved
blockade, and a tense period during which
nuclear war appeared likely, eventually
resulted in the USSR, under Khrushchev,
agreeing to drsmonrle the nudear bases.
A The Cold Wor was o period ol political
and economic conltontahon between Ihe
two superpowers and their allies. Ihe area
of highest tension was olong the "Iron
Curtain" fhot divided Western from foslern
Europe, but the two sides' opposition to each
olber was ployed out in conflicts - some ol
a mrlilary nature - oil over the world.
O THE SECOND \VOKU> WAX. IX EIROPE 1939-4S pages 2.U-.M
Hi
THE BREAKDOWN OF EMPIRES
SINCE 1945
1 Colonies and mandates 1939
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► In 1 939 Inge oreos oi the world were
still under colonial rule, although in India
and Africa, in particular, ihe colonial powers
depended on indigenous political cubs la
administer nt the local level. Immediately
otter the conclusion of the First World War
the League ol Nations eslohtehed mandates
according la which countries victorious in the
war, such as Britain and France, undertook
la administer regions thai had previously
been colonies of Germany or the Ottoman
Empire, with evenluol independence as the
ultimate goal. Japan was the only country
la expand its empire daring trie inter-wor
period, moving into MandWio in 1931
as a prelude to its lull-scale assault on
Chimin 1937
7 Decolonization 1945-98
InrlEanndwiceonin&tl^S-ai
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Before the Second World \V;ir the European colonial
empires seemed largely secure (map 1). Despite Inde-
pendence movements in India (pages 248-4')) and
French Indochina (parses 2SOS1 ), and the growth of trade
unions and early political movements in Africa and the
Caribbean, colonial rule was widely expected to continue
well into the 21st century. Yet within 20 years of the war's
end most colonies had become independent, leaving only a
few outposts whose future had still to be resolved iiuap 2).
The war's corrosive effects on colonialism were initially
seen most clearly in Asia. Some colonics, such as Malaya and
French Indochina, experienced invasion and occupation by
Japanese forces, unleashing anti-colonial nationalism which
could not he reversed at'ter the war. The African colonies,
meanwhile, became vital sources of military manpower and
raw materials for the Allied war effort, the mobilization of
which involved economic and social change. Colonial gov-
ernments Were forced to depart from their traditional
approach of working through local political rulers and to
adopt a more interventionist approach. This laid them open
to local criticism of wartime restrictions, food shortages and
many other hardships - grievances that often escalated into
early forms of political protest.
Paradoxically, although the war weakened most of the
colonial powers, it also increased their desire to utilize col-
onial resources to assist their own economic recovery after
the war. The colonial powers sometimes used force in the
face of growing local resistance to their rule, as seen in the
unsuccessful attempts by the French and Dutch to re-estab-
lish control of Indochina and Indonesia respectively, and in
Britain's ultimately successful campaign to defeat a commu-
nist insurrection in Malaya.
THE liVEYTTAIMUTY OP INDEPENDENCE
Much of sttb-Saharan Africa became independent between
l"5rj and 1962. Partly responding to the "winds of change"
of African nationalism, Britain accelerated its plans lor decol-
onization, and most of its African colonies became
independent in the early 1960s (map 2). The major obsta-
cle proved to be the resistance of white settlers to African
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ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
majority rule in East and Central Africa, and Zimbabwe's
legal independence was delayed until 1980. By the 1970s
only the Portuguese dictatorship seemed determined to
retain its African colonies, fighting a series of protracted wars
against guerrilla movements. The financial and human cost
to Portugal was enormous, provoking a military coup and
revolution in 1974, with the new government committed to
rapid decolonization.
After 1945 colonialism increasingly became an inter-
national issue. Both the United States and the Soviet Union
had traditionally been hostile to European colonial rule and
had put pressure on their wartime allies, Britain and France,
to make a commitment to reform. In the immediate post-war
period the colonial powers attempted to raise the living stan-
dards of the indigenous peoples in their colonies, hoping
thus to appease both local feeling within the colonies and the
international community. As the Gold War intensified (pages
244-45), the superpowers competed for influence in the
developing world, both in ex-colonies and in colonies soon
to become independent. Moreover, the United Nations, now
responsible for the territories mandated by the League of
Nations, became an important forum for criticism of colo-
nialism. Arguments for faster decolonization intensified as
former colonies themselves became members of the UN.
An important factor by the early 1960s was the desire to
avoid costly, and probably unwinnable, wars against colonial
nationalist movements. The long and bloody Algerian War
(1954-62), as a result of which France lost control of Algeria,
had demonstrated the perils of opposing demands for inde-
pendence. Furthermore, such conflicts risked escalating the
Cold War if the communist bloc offered support to the forces
fighting for independence.
Another consideration was the shifting pattern of inter-
national trade. By the late 1950s economic integration in
Western Europe (pages 238-39) was giving rise to serious
doubts about the likely returns from large-scale colonial
investment. Moreover, as the French demonstrated, it was
possible to decolonize while preserving many of the advan-
tages, commercial and otherwise, of formal colonial rule. A
major consideration influencing British and French policy-
makers, therefore, was the hope that their respective
colonies would opt after independence to join the Common-
wealth of Nations (map 3) or the French Community. The
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great majority of former British colonies did choose this form
of continuing association, so that decolonization seldom rep-
resented an abrupt change in relationships. Despite the
effective collapse of the French Community in 1960, France
has maintained close economic, diplomatic and military
links with many of its former possessions.
Small island states
Decolonization posed the question of whether small island
states, particularly those in the Caribbean (map 4) and the
Pacific, could achieve viable independent nationhood. One
solution was to group small territories together into larger
political units. The Federation of the West Indies was formed
in 1958 after many years of negotiation, although British
Guiana and British Honduras opted not to join. However,
when its larger, more prosperous members, Jamaica and
Trinidad and Tobago, gained separate independence in 1962
the Federation was dissolved. Other island territories, such
as Gibraltar, had originally been acquired for their strategic
value, but this declined as Britain wound down its overseas
defence commitments in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
The remaining European dependencies (map 2) are
mostly small territories, often islands. In some cases, notably
the Falkland Islands/Malvinas (claimed by Argentina) and
Gibraltar (claimed by Spain), the issue of sovereignty
remains unresolved. In the case of Hong Kong and Macau,
the return of sovereignty to China was agreed through nego-
tiated settlements. Some small islands, especially in the
Caribbean and Pacific, have opted for a limited form of inde-
pendence, retaining association with their former colonial
power in matters such as defence and diplomacy, while
others, including many islands in French Polynesia, have
rejected offers of independence.
▲ Because of their small size, many of the
Caribbean islands are not economically
viable ta independent states. Attempts to
form an economic and political union,
known as the Federation of the West Indies,
failed when the larger ex-colonies opted
out, leaving islands such as Montserrat to be
administered as British dependencies. All the
ex-British colonies in the Caribbean opted to
join the Commonwealth of Nations on
achieving their independence.
T The expansion of the British
Commonwealth (the Commonwealth of
Nations) in 1 947 to include India and
Pakistan enabled the organization to evolve
into a multi-ethnic grouping, which nearly
all Britain's former colonies decided to join.
South Africa left the Commonwealth in the
face of condemnation of its policy of
apartheid, but rejoined in 1994. Pakistan
left in 1 972 in protest at the admission of
Bangladesh to the Commonwealth, but
rejoined in 1 989. In 1 997 the first countries
not previously British colonies - Cameroon
and Mozambique - were admitted.
3 Commonwealth of Nations
British dependencies
[ I Commonwealth members 1998
1994 Period of membership of
Commonweolth (if rot continuous)
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© WOFLLD TRADE AND EMPIRES 1870-1914 pages 208-9
SOUTH ASIA
SINCE 1920
Arabian
Sea
1 Administrative structure
Of
HDIA IN THE 1930S
■H
Pnwmces unfa dract Britisii die
■
States ucirfer Inrtim aifrwiisirarisii
i
Punlce Slate tojancy
2
E«r*«
1
C«ntTd indoigencf
i
tanai
[«a]
Proxies in whkh Coflpeii port/
flon PGWht *i l937 8fectiorK
nm
CEVLON
BfiHih colotYyl
A The administration of India in the 1 93th
wos undertaken in lame areas by ihe
British, but in others by Iota! Indian rulers
and agencies. In the 1937 elections Ihe
(ongress Party won political control in
provinces across the country.
►■ India 's population increased signif kantly
ii tht second hull of Ihe 70th century,
trebling in under 55 years, lis growth rate
also accelerated, so ibal by ihe end of the
cenlmy ihe population was increasing by 25
per <enl every len years.
I India's population 1941-97
(in millions!
■:'■:.
• ill
2THEPARriTIOHOFlMDfAl947
Mifilvris o \ t,i lata! pdJuboa
Bsundory t*h-vfl&ii Indid and Pn^ipn ] 4 Aug 1 W
**^ Muslim idugMi fa Patisnan
~^m HtnikjfrfijgtsrtrB.lfldo
1 1 Urate
laV *»
1 1 MuSfcns
1 1 BudJmts
1 ' lifistic IV
[ 1 jQi,| s
CEYION
A When Ihe Indian subcontinent gained
independence in 1947 its sinoble Muslim
minority population was given ihe stale of
Pakistan (split in la two parrs: West and
East). Seeking safely from religious
pt ist mi™, mi Ilia ns (led: Hindus inla India
and Muslims into Pakistan
During the 1920s and 1930s a struggle developed
between Britain, determined to maintain control over
its empire in India, and the growing force of Indian
nationalism. Political reforms in 1919, which were ostens-
ibly a step towards eventual self-government, gave elected
Indians limited responsibility in provincial government, but
failed to satisfy nationalists. Indian protests centred on the
campaigns of non-violent civil disobedience organized by the
nationalist leader, Mohandas Gandhi, seeking Indian self-rule.
Gandhi, and the largely Hindu Indian National Congress
Party, mobilized nationwide mass support, undermining
British authority and causing alarm among India's large
Muslim minority. By the late 1920s Congress was demand-
ing complete independence. Britain's response was to
combine repression (involving the detention of nationalist
leaders - among them Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru) with
constitutional reforms in 1935. These gave substantial power
to autonomous provincial governments, while keeping overall
control in British hands. In the 1937 provincial elections,
Congress won power in a number of provinces (including the
largely Muslim North West Frontier Province) (map 1).
The Second World War transformed the situation. In
India Britain suspended talk of constitutional change until
after the war and Congress ministers resigned in protest at
India's involvement in the war without prior consultation.
The cost of mobilizing India's economy to support the war
effort was high, and was paid for by the victims of the Bengal
famine of 1943 in which over one million people died. In
1942, faced by a possible Japanese invasion, Britain offered
India independence after the war, in return for its wartime
support. Congress replied with the massive "Quit India"
protest campaign, which resulted in its leaders being impris-
oned until 1945. Meanwhile, the Muslim League committed
itself to forming a separate Muslim state (Pakistan).
By 1945 Britain, lacking the will or the resources to rule
by force, sought to accelerate India's independence. Britain
hoped to maintain Indian unity through a federal structure,
but Congress insisted on a strong, centralized government,
while the Muslim League demanded greater provincial
autonomy. In the face of violence between the Hindu and
Muslim communities, Congress agreed to the partition of
India, with the creation of a separate Pakistan from the
mainly Muslim western provinces and Bengal. In August
1947 India and Pakistan became independent (map 2), and
millions of Hindu and Muslim refugees subsequently sought
safety in the two new states. At least one million people died
in attacks and reprisal killings carried out by one or other of
the opposing religious groups. Despite the mass migration,
India's population still includes a substantial proportion of
Muslims (pie chart).
India since independence
Since independence India has remained the world's largest
democracy. During the premiership of Nehru (1947-64), his
government introduced five-year plans, and controlled
foreign and private enterprise, in an effort to increase agri-
cultural and industrial production. Given India's rapidly
growing population (bar chart 1 ) it was imperative to boost
food production and the late 1960s saw the beginnings of a
"green revolution", in which modern farming techniques
were employed with some success (bar chart 2). Attempts
were made to attack poverty and social underprivilege,
although measures to emancipate women and the lower
castes were seen as challenging traditional Hindu values.
In 1966 Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi, became prime
minister. Her attempts to tackle mass poverty and encour-
age birth control alienated conservative opinion. She was
found guilty of electoral corruption in 1975 and declared a
state of emergency. Briefly imprisoned in 1978, Mrs Gandhi
regained power in 1980. During the 1980s communal ten-
sions re-emerged, with minority groups demanding greater
recognition (map 3). Growing Sikh separatism led to Mrs
Gandhi's assassination by Sikh extremists in 1984. Tensions
also emerged between the central government and India's
Naga, Tamil and Muslim communities.
AltAS OF WOULD HISTORY: PART 5
Pakistan ajnu Bangladesh
Pakistan began life as two ethnically distinct territories phys-
ically separated by India (map 2). The country faced poverty
and political division, aggravated by West Pakistan's attempts
to assert its dominance over East Pakistan. Whereas India
was a leading force in the non-aligned movement, Pakistan
aligned itself with the Western nations. While the Indian
army remained non-political, Pakistan's army, which first
seized power in 1958, often intervened in polities. During the
1960s the economic gap between West and East Pakistan
widened. In East Pakistan separatism developed under
Kheikh Mujib-ur-Rahman, whose Awatni League triumphed
in the 1970 elections. When West Pakistan sent troops to
restore order in 1971, civil war broke out and India inter-
vened on Mujib's behalf. Pakistan was defeated and an
independent Uangladesh was created in January 1972.
Continuing political instability and military interventions
have since added to Bangladesh's problems of mass poverty.
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's modernization programme in the
early 1970s alienated many in Pakistan, and in 1977 he was
ousted in a military coup led by Genera] Zia-ul-Haq, who
sought to create a more Islamic state. Through subsequent
periods of military rule and democracy, the country faced
the problems of Islamic fundamentalism and separatism.
Sri Lanka
The British colony of Ceylon contained, in addition to its
majority Buddhist .Sinhalese population, a large Hindu Tamil
minority. When it became independent in 1948 government
attempts to make Sinhalese the official language alienated
the Tamil minority, who campaigned for autonomy. In 19W)
Mrs Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the world's first woman
prime minister. She changed the country's name to Sri
Lanka in 1972 and pursued radical socialist policies. Her
successor, Junius Jayawardene, reversed this trend and tried
to appease the Tamil community. However, In 1983 long-
standing ethnic tensions erupted into a prolonged civil war
which Indian military intervention in 1987 failed to end.
Territorial oispltes
Since independence, South Asia has witnessed several major
territorial disputes (map ,1). Relations between India and
Pakistan were soured by their rival claims to Jammu and
Kashmir. Immediately after the formation of India and
Pakistan, from which Kashmir initially remained indepen-
dent, the new Pakistan government sent troops to lay claim
to the predominantly Muslim state. The Hindu maharaja, Sir
llari Singh, immediately acceded the state to India, who sent
troops in his support, forcing the Pakistanis into a partial
withdrawal. The United Nations intervened and ruled in
1949 that a plebiscite should take place, but the two sides
failed to reach agreement on how this should be adminis-
tered. In 196S serious fighting between India and Pakistan
culminated in a Soviet-arranged truce, and in 1972 each
country accepted that the dispute should be solved bilater-
ally. Violent protests in Kashmir for greater autonomy have,
however, persisted since the 1980s.
Territorial disputes between India and China escalated
after China absorbed Tibet in 1959. In October 1962 China
invaded India in Arunaehal Pradesh, forcing Indian troops to
retreat before a ceasefire was arranged. These regional ten-
sions have led both India and Pakistan to maintain large
armies and to develop nuclear weapons. In 2002 there was a
threat of war between the two countries over Kashmir.
k The dynostir tradition in South Asian
polilks has tad to several women holding
positions of power. Sirimavo Bondai nnaike
look control of ihe Sri lank an Freedom
Perry following her husband's assassination
and became the world's firsi woman prime
minisler in 1 960. She served a further term
during the 1 97(h and in 1 994 was
appointed for o third by her daughter
Chondriko Kumnrotungo, who was then
serving as president
-4 Since independence in 1947 Indie and
Pakistan have conlinued ta dispute control
of iammu and Kashmir. China also dorms a
small area of ihis mountainous region.
Elsewhere, border disputes have occurred
between India and China, and between
Bhutan and China. In 1 971 East Pakistan
brake away bom West Pakistan la form the
independent stale of Bangladesh, and ho'h
Pakistan and India have experienced claims
for autonomy from people wilhin then
borders, among them ihe Balucbis in
Pakistan and Ihe Nagas in Assam.
Ihe subcontinent's mast serious separatist
activity has been that of Ihe Tamils in Sri
Lanka, where an estimated 65,000 people
were killed in a ID-year civil war before the
declaration of a ceasefire in 2001.
T Improvements in agricultural practices in
India, known as the "green revolution", led
lo mocked increases in productivity ham the
1 960s to Ihe 1 980s with the amount ol
wheat harvested more than trebling,
2 Agriculture product ion
n India 1941-84
{in millions of tonnes]
HZ! Sire
CZ1 Meat
© THE BRITISH IN INDIA L6Q8-1920 pages 194-9S
SOUTHEAST ASIA
SINCE 1920
Changes in the labour force
I I Agriculture
I I InrJuilTi
i i Semes
Indonesia 1965
Indonesio 1985
▲ As elsewhere in the world, Southeast
Asia has seen a substantial increase in the
number of people employed in services and
industry in recent decades, at the expense
of agriculture.
T The Federation of Malaysia was formed
in 1 963 but Singapore, an original member,
left in 1 965. Brunei remains self-governing.
The Republic of Indonesia, formed in 1949,
has occupied East Timor since 1 975.
In 1920 Thailand was the only country in Southeast Asia
that was not under Western colonial administration,
although indigenous anti-colonial movements had been
established in most parts of the region, even if in rudimen-
tary form. The next 55 years were to be dominated by the
struggle for self-determination - a process which differed
markedly from country to country (map 1).
At one extreme was the peaceful transfer of power in the
Philippines, which had become a colony of the United States
at the conclusion of the Spanish-American War in 1898. The
United States, with its strong anti-colonial tradition, was
uncomfortable with its new responsibilities and moved
rapidly to transfer political and administrative powers to
Filipinos. In 1935 it established the Philippine Common-
wealth, granting the Filipino government control of internal
affairs, and promising full independence on 4 July 1946. To
a large degree, the process of decolonization was driven by
the colonial power itself.
At the other extreme was the turbulent situation in
French Indochina and the Dutch East Indies, where anti-
colonial agitation was, for much of the 1920s and 1930s,
vigorously suppressed by colonial administrations. Between
the two extremes was Burma, where, under pressure from
the constitutional advances being made in India (pages
248-49), the British transferred some administrative
responsibilities to the Burmese in the early 1920s.
The Western colonial presence in Southeast Asia was
shattered by the Japanese military advance into the region
between December 1941 and April 1942 (pages 234-35).
The fiercely anti-Western sentiments expressed by the
Japanese, and their effective destruction of the myth of
white supremacy, influenced the political aspirations of the
indigenous populations of the region. Following the
Japanese surrender in August 1945, the Dutch and French
faced severe opposition to their attempts to re-establish
control over their former colonies. In the Dutch East Indies
a fierce military and political battle was waged between the
Dutch and the forces of the newly declared Republic of
Indonesia until, towards the end of 1949, the United States
- acting through the United Nations - put pressure on the
Dutch to withdraw.
Burma achieved independence early in 1948, but was
almost immediately riven by ethnic and political splits. In
1962 it became a military-led state in which all dissent was
ruthlessly crushed. British rule in Malaya came to an end by
peaceful negotiation in 1957, although from 1948 to 1960
British and Commonwealth troops were involved in the sup-
pression of a major communist rebellion in the country.
. Gumgrfnu WJWAN
1 The end « Western rule
m Smatanfami I «0
J I94t-S0
Z\ Wl-aO
H rjfm IWO
llf-Wl Don of IndjpmoWt
1 I Ej-Frorcli colony
I I Ei-Briiiihnr Awrrobnn colony
| Ejc-Duttli colony
| [i-Partuguey! iukni,'
3 Ek-US colrjrlv
CHINA
C u / f of r . . . .
Tliii i I a ii (( O
""■ Nho Trong
2 Dob. °
V O OCoin
* Ranh
icn Hoo
°5oigOn |Ho Chi Minh Giy)
Con Son
hhndi
2 The Vietnam War 1959-75
-*• HedaMMital
MajallSbast
»*• US ntasai « Cantofc 1*70)
»*■ State by US Mb**
1 1 «Fsosiov*f(B**db,lf*(ongim
v^- Bocnhnfl raft (rom US Itl Rttf
▲ Vietnam's struggle for independence
from the French resulted, in 1954, in the
division of the country into communist North
Vietnam and US-backed South Vietnam.
North Vietnam attempted to overthrow the
southern regime and reunify the country.
The United States, anxious to prevent the
spread of communism, became militarily
involved in the 1 960s but was eventually
defeated by the Vietcong's guerrilla tactic.
The Vietnam War
In French Indochina the anti-colonial struggle was to last
much longer. Open conflict between the French and the
Vietminh, in effect the Indochinese Communist Party, broke
out in December 1946, after negotiations to reconcile the
ambitions of French colonialists and Vietnamese national-
ists had failed. After a long, draining guerrilla war, the French
forces were defeated at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. (The
Vietnamese were the only people in Southeast Asia to
achieve the withdrawal of a colonial power by military
victory.) However, at the Geneva Conference which opened
in May 1954, the Communists failed to secure a united
Vietnam under their control. Instead, they were forced -
partly by pressures imposed by China, the Soviet Union, and
the United States - to accept a temporary division along the
17th parallel pending elections in 1956 (map 2). From 1955
a strongly anti-communist government was established in
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
Y*Y
TAIWAN
(FORMOSA)
Luzon
PHIUPPINES ^' lD
oro#«*agi
PhariiBho
[Ho Chi Minti Cilyl
Singapore
* tit
MALAYSIA
Mindanao ■
Borneo
KALIMANTAN
Su/awesi
INDONESIA
ikv
Jakarta
~~" DSombo)™
Stirokcria OMafang
Java
Par.clar
i
Timor
Growth in five major cities
Papulation in thousands:
rzzi i5w
rzzi \m
r
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r I ^
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3 Trade and usbaniiation
SyirinknBitfutstiiiapwKiamils: snuMsiiiBrtpnswieifMiSK IMOs
'.— 'r*. taimai * * mi
rubbei • * ri/petntam products
^ ptywGod £ ekKlmty
O Oi rite « " Mhs
O O nwsjgnr ¥ dothing
O Q coffee ^ IwtoKu
^ V ibo Gl eleclrual and electronic goods
T T palm products # canoed foodstuffe
•( «t foh/fca preduch LMwn papuktlun ia Itie 1 V9tk-_
H hemp ■ <itr lid ma 3 mfcn htanta*
O ubaco □ thy w* 1-3 mfcn Nutans
♦ ♦ m O ov^M.MB-imfciiitMiaoiR
the South, under the leadership ot Ngo Dinh Diem, and was
soon receiving massive US economic and military support.
In the late 1950s communist North Vietnam began the
armed struggle to overthrow the southern regime, funnelling
supplies of men and arms down the Ho Chi Minh Trail - in
reality a shifting complex of jungle routes - into the South.
The United States first committed ground troops to
Vietnam in 1965, although much of its military might took
the form of mass bomber raids from bases in Thailand and
aircraft-carriers in the South China Sea against the Ho Chi
Minh Trail and urban centres in North Vietnam. In early
1968, while celebrations were underway for the lunar New
Year (Tet), the communist Vietcong launched fierce attacks
against urban centres across South Vietnam - the "Tet
Offensive". However, despite some striking successes -
including Vietcong fighting their way into the compound of
the US Embassy in Saigon - the offensive failed to dislodge
the southern regime and its ally. In 1970, in an attempt to
protect its forces in the south, the United States launched an
invasion into eastern Cambodia with the aim of destroying
the communist sanctuaries there. It was now clear, however,
that the United States could not defeat the Vietcong and, fol-
lowing strong domestic pressure, US forces were withdrawn
from Vietnam by the end of March 1973. In April 1975
communist troops entered Saigon, the southern regime col-
lapsed, and Vietnam was united under communist rule.
The post-colonial era
The period since the mid-1960s has seen an extraordinary
economic transformation in large parts of Southeast Asia.
From being principally exporters of agricultural products and
minerals, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and, to
some degree, the Philippines, have developed a substantial
industrial base, exporting finished manufactured goods -
including electrical and electronic goods, clothing and
footwear - to markets across the world (map 3). This was
largely achieved through heavy investment by East Asian,
European and American multinational companies, which
took advantage of Southeast Asia's low wage costs. High eco-
nomic growth rates were sustained over a number of
decades, with a particularly rapid spurt in the late 1980s.
The industrialization of Southeast Asia was mirrored by
the rapid pace of urbanization. Cities expanded rapidly (bar
chart), with the result that a high proportion of the popula-
tion now live in shanty towns surrounding the prosperous
commercial centres. Rapid economic growth created for-
tunes for Southeast Asia's tycoons, with the large urban
middle class and those living in rural areas also benefiting.
Southeast Asia's long boom was brought to a sudden halt
in the middle of 1997. Beginning with the Thai baht, many of
the region's major currencies came under intense specula-
tive pressure and were forced to devalue. Stock markets
plunged and banks crashed. In the wake of the financial
meltdown unemployment soared and large sections of the
population faced severe economic hardship. The causes of
the crisis differed from economy to economy, but the over-
commitment of largely unregulated banks, widespread
corruption and unsustainable budget deficits by govern-
ments with over-ambitious spending plans were clearly
important factors.
The economic crisis had serious political consequences
in 1998. Riots in Indonesia in May led to the end of President
Suharto's 30-year period in power, and in Malaysia a split in
the dominant political party, coupled with popular protest
against corruption, provoked a serious challenge to the
prime minister, Mahathir bin Muhammad.
▲ Southeast Asia has tor centuries been a
provider of raw materials to Western and
Japanese manufacturers. While exports of
agricultural products (including hardwoods
from its rapidly diminishing rainforests)
continue, Malaysia, Indonesia, the
Philippines and Thailand have also
developed into producers of manufactured
goods, in particular electrical and electronic
products. As their industrial sector has
expanded so have their cities, with people
flooding in from agricultural regions in the
hope of finding relatively well-paid
employment in manufacturing and
expanding service industries.
© SOUTHEAST ASIA IN THE AGE OF IMPERIALISM 1790-1914 pages 196-97
JAPAN
SINCE 1945
THE CH41UNGE OF AM
AGEING POPULATION
■".'.- ' ■.;■; . ..' ■ -_;■""
czi d-h
rzn a*
r
r»-
l«0
■a
r
1975
5-
r
tsttati
I02i
A During the 1 9605 Japan benefited from
a , C'ulhiu! ond rapidly growing working
population, bvl Ihe children of the post-war
"baby boom" will eventually reach
relitement age. Social anil financial
adjustments will be required in order to
provide o derenl standard of living lor o
large populoiion at pensioners.
Defeat in thu Pacific War ( 1'M I— 15) left ,l:ip;m without
an empire and with an industrial economy in ruins.
The Allied (predominantly American) occupiers
moved swiftly to incorporate democratic reforms into a
revised constitution, The emperor was retained as a cere-
monial figure, but power was exercised hy a legislature
elected by universal suffrage. The great industrial combines
(zaibaisu ) that had dominated the pre-war economy (pages
200-1 ) were broken up, labour unions were legalized, and
the power of rural landlords was destroyed hy wholesale
land reforms that favoured small family farms.
Thu reforming zeal of tin. occupying authorities was,
however, of little immediate significance to most ordinary
Japanese, for whom the economic hardships of war and its
aftermath were compounded by the repatriation of millions
of former soldiers and colonists, and the post-war "baby
boom''. The failure of the economy to recover sufficiently
to meet the day-to-day needs of the population soon led to
revisions in economic policy, and these changes were rein-
forced by the political fallout from the victory of the
Communists in China and the outbreak of war on the
Korean Peninsula in 1 950 (pages 24-t—fS). liy the time the
United States administration ended in 1952. Japan had been
redefined as a bastion of anti-communism in East Asia, and
expenditure of around RJ.5 billion by the United States mil-
itary during the Korean War had stimulated the economy
into growth.
Economic expansion
Over the next two decades Japan enjoyed an extraordinary
period of economic expansion. Industrial production had
recovered to pre-war levels by 1955, and during the 1960s
average annual growth rates exceeded 11) per cent. This
success, which became a model for other Asian economies,
rested on a fortuitous combination of external and internal
circumstances. Japan's deficiencies in mineral resources
were of little importance in an era when cheap raw materi-
als could be acquired easily from overseas. The United
States offered a ready market for manufactured exports,
made more competitive hy an increasingly undervalued cur-
rency. It also provided access to industrial expertise for
Japanese technologists. Foreign policy focused overwhelm-
ingly on trade promotion, although one important territorial
issue was resolved w ith the return of Okinawa to Japanese
sovereignty by the United States in 1972.
Tile "family state" of pre-war times was replaced by a
"developmental state", in which a stable political regime
under the conservative Liberal Democrats allowed major
industrial groupings to re-emerge under the guiding hand
of an elite bureaucracy. Large-scale movements of pop-
ulation from the countryside to the cities (irmp I)
guaranteed a supply of youthful and well-educated
workers for Japan's factories; labour rela
tions based on company
unions and employment
for life helped to
secure support for economic growth as the primary goal of
the nation. A high rate of savings ensured adequate supplies
of capital. As wealth accumulated, domestic demand
became an increasingly important source of growth.
Hy the late 1960s it was apparent that such unrestrained
economic expansion had environmental costs, with out-
breaks of illnesses caused by industrial pollution - such as
"Minamata Disease" and "Yokkaiehi Asthma" - serious
enough to attract international attention, labour shortages
in Japans cities reinforced pressure for Industry to relocate
or raise productivity {map 2). Trade friction with the United
States anil a sharp revaluation of the yen preceded the oil
crisis of 197.1-74 (pages 272-73), Japan's vulnerability to
d is nipt ion in the supply of an energy source on which it had
become almost wholly dependent was exposed amid panic
buying of daily essentials by the public, rapid inflation and
the temporary cessation of growth.
Japan responded quickly and effectively to these chal-
lenges. Energy- intensive heavy industries were obliged to
raise their efficiency and clean up their effluents or move
overseas, as Japan felt the effect of competition from Korea
and the other emerging industrial economies in East Asia.
Small, fuel-efficient cars were suddenly in demand, and
KAIDO
1 Changes in distribution
of populatioh since 1 960
District baunrJary
Pratecture boundtrr
P«utam<no«Ee I9MJ-JS:
■I in
■ S0-45K
□ 15-30%
ZJo-iss
I Imfaiy.
OtfwfltipooJirtBiini
G wei 5 million
® 1—5 million
O 500.000-1 «*o
- 4 Kumbmoto
Kbgntiimo ° N
Hamar^obu
A Sapid populoiion increases in
prsleclures within the Patific coast bell
between Tokyo and Osaka, and absolute
losses in remote rural areas, reflect a
massive redistribution al populoiion
ihtaugh internol miataiion. which
peaked in the lale 1960s and again in
ihe 1 980s. With ihe highest employment
growth in Ihe service sectot, large cities
hove been popular desli nations (or
economic migrants.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
/
1 DtsnmmoH « mamufactubihc oumn sike 1 960
Lend d predxtoi tx <«p*> 1 ?M In* how *m d Hd monfaung
2 ftdirtre whose intdioid
oifd aid sbm d Wd Jqnwse populirliffi. by prersttfe):
Japanese menjfacturinfj output
^B lOomlobwe ^B 1.0-1.4 | | 0,0-0.4
iKKostd by trrei SOVIky vital
■ 1.5-1.9 | | O.S-0.9
IM0-B
•4 The mojot ndusiiiol regions in Japan
were established before the Second World
War. Investment wos ccmcentioled there in
the 1 9H)s to lake advantage of the existing
infrastructure. However, labour shortages,
high land prices and pollution controls in
large cities, plus competition ham overseas.
fuelled a ((location of industry within japan
to areas that had rial previously proved
attractive to investors.
▼ In the 1960s Japanese manufacturing
was largely dominaled by heavy industries
such as steel production and shipbuilding.
By the I '70s, however, more profitable
industries, in particular vehicle
manufacturing, were increasingly important.
In the 1 990s new industries, such as those
producing semiconductors and other
electronic equipment, experienced a boom
and continued la expand in the 1 990s.
The changing balance of industrial production
1990 1995
MkMihps
(100.030 70SJ
^Guoestsd
1 1,000,000 wmsl
^ ■ nnsngM nftdn
1100,000)
— SetnkondiKUm
(1.000,000 mils)
exports responded quickly, until the threat of protective
tariffs from countries in North America and Europe on cars
exported from Japan forced Japanese car manufacturers to
increase their production in these regions. Industry shifted
towards "knowledge-intensive" sectors such as electronics
(graph), in which Japan established international standards
and dominated world markets. Growth did slow from the
heady rates of the 1960s, but still averaged over 4 per cent
per annum in 1974 to 1985, and Japan was able to weather
the second oil crisis of 1978.
Foreign relations and trade
As the 1980s progressed, relations with the United States
became more problematic. The cost to the United States of
protecting Japan during the Gold War was high, while Japan
grew ever richer on burgeoning trade surpluses. The United
States became sensitive to the effect of imports from Japan
on job prospects at home. It put restraints on trade in man-
ufactured goods between the two countries, and pressure on
Japan to open up its markets to US farm produce, such as
rice. Japanese agriculture itself was by now heavily subsi-
dized and plagued by inefficiencies linked to the small farms
inherited from the land reforms of the 1940s. It attempted,
unsuccessfully, to adapt to competition from imports by
changing the crops that it produced.
The Plaza Agreement of 1985, between the United
States, Japan, France, Germany and the United Kingdom,
sought to resolve global trade imbalances by expanding
Japan's domestic demand. The rapid appreciation of the yen
was also expected to make Japanese products less compet-
itive in international markets and to boost imports to Japan.
Yet again, however, Japanese industry responded by shift-
ing up a gear: in a flurry of direct investment in East and
Southeast Asia, manufacturers sought to avoid high
Japanese wages by moving production overseas (map 3).
This process was known as "hollowing out". It was
matched by a rapid expansion in Japan's foreign aid, the aim
of which was to support infrastructural improvements in
neighbouring countries. This facilitated production of, and
created additional demand for, Japanese products in these
countries. Japan became the centre of a regional manufac-
turing system tied together by trade flows of raw materials,
components and manufactured goods. Tokyo was trans-
formed into one of the world's three great financial centres.
Investments at home and overseas were buoyed up by low
interest rates and the willingness of banks to lend against
property assets, which soared in value. This speculative
"bubble economy" finally burst in the early 1990s as land
prices collapsed, obliging the government to shore up the
ailing banking sector. The banks' problems were com-
pounded by the subsequent economic crisis in Southeast
Asia (pages 250-51 ) as loans to finance new factories in
Thailand, Indonesia and elsewhere turned sour.
In the latter half of the 1990s Japan, with the world's
highest life expectancy, was beginning to adjust to social
changes brought about by a population in which the pro-
portion of older people was growing (bar charts). Its
politicians were attempting to relax bureaucratic control of
domestic markets and to continue the reform of its finan-
cial systems. Such changes were a necessary counterpart to
the growing climate of openness in Japan's trade and finan-
cial relations with the outside world.
The popular opposition to military participation in the
Gulf War of 1991, and Japan's inability to counter the threat
posed by North Korean missiles, indicated the mismatch
between Japan's status as a pre-eminent global economic
power and its low political and military profile. The occu-
pation by Russia of the islands to the northeast of Japan also
remained a sensitive issue at the end of the century.
T The "hollowing out" of the Japanese
economy, which saw Japanese direct
investment in Asia increase tenfold between
1 985 and 1 990, added a new dimension to
Japan's economic ties to other countries in
the region, which had previously been
dominated by imports of raw materials, and
exports of products manufactured in Japan.
© THE WAR IN ASIA 1931-45 pages 234-35
THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
SINCE 1949
Population 1952-^4
(in mileons]
H ubiin populnioii <S of iwrii
A (hino's population alniosr doubled
during Ihe period of Mao's leadership
(1 949-76], although rhi period ol the
Greol leap forward 1 1 959-6!], which
loused •] i in- famine in tome areas, show
op os o slight slowing at the growth role.
Attempts wore mode during the 1 970s lo
restrict the size of families, culminating in a
law passed in 1979 (generally considered lo
have failed) limiting married couples to one
child. As m many other developing
countries, a lolling death rale has ensured
thai, despite o reduced birth rale, Ihe
population continues to grew - officially ot
around 1 per rent per year, ahnough this
takes no account ol a large, mobile,
inly lo he found
in rural China. The country's urban
population has grown steadily as a
proportion of the total, except lor Ihe period
ol the Cultural Revolution (1 966-7!], when
P- China has the largest papulation of any
country in the world. At the lime ol Mao's
death in 1 976 the majority were clustered.
as they had been for centuries, in Ihe rich
agricultural regions, with around 20 per
cent of the population in cities.
A In the mid-1960s Mao Zedong
successfully reasserted conttcl over the
Communist Potty by empowering Chinese
youlh in his Cultutol Revolution. The tittle
Red Bonk, containing Mao's political axioms,
became a symbol ol revolutionary lent, not
only in China but also around the world.
The People's Republic of China was founded on 1
October 1949, following the defeat of [he- Japanese
invaders and the unification ot the country under a
single govern merit. The immediate priorities were to estab-
lish law ami order, implement land reforms, balance the
state budget, stabilize prices and nationalize industry.
I laving gained public support tor these essentially national-
istic policies, from the mid-l'JSOs onwards Chairman Mao
Zedong began to introduce communist reforms. Initially,
the communist programme was heavily influenced by the
Soviet Union, with whom China had signed a pact in 1950.
It Involved wholesale rural and urban collectivization, with
the assets of large property owners being taken over by the
state. Those of smaller property owners were given to com-
munes, supervised by the Communist Party Other radical
social measures were passed, including giving women equal
legal status with men in terms of marriage and employment.
The five-year i*lans
The main thrust of the programme was industrialization,
formalized into a series ol' five-year plans. During the first of
these (1953-58), over 100 industrial projects were set up
with the help of machinery and expertise from the Soviet
Union. The aim was to create an economy that did not
depend cm imports from capitalist courr tries, and the policy
was initially effective in changing China's economy from
one based on agriculture to one based on heavy industry.
In his second five-year plan, known as the "Great Leap
Forward". Mao rejected the Soviet model and developed a
specifically Chinese communism based on peasant labour,
lie instructed collectives to build and run small-scale iron
and steel foundries. However, not only did it prove impossi-
ble to produce metal of an acceptable standard, but the
scheme also took labour away from the agricultural sector.
Production of food dropped as a consequence, leading to a
nationwide famine that claimed tens of millions of lives
[betr chart f ], The plan also seriously backfired in the indus-
trial sector, svith production dropping by Up to 50 per cent,
forcing the government to de-industrialize the economy.
China's economic growth was temporarily halted.
The Ci i.tvhal Re volition
Chairman Mao's main concern was to promote his ideology
and increase his power, leading him into conflict with other,
more pragmatic, members of his government, in particular
President Liu Bhaoql. Mao launched his Cultural Revolution
in 1966 in an attempt to revive his control over the party
and society. Party officials, teachers and factory managers
were among those in authority who were verbally and phys-
ically attacked, imprisoned or sent to work in labour camps.
There they were joined by mil lions of young people, whose
schools and universities had been closed. Industrial pro-
duction was severely disrupted, and the economy brought
near to bankruptcy during the ten-scar process.
ATIAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
Foreign policy under Mao
Immediately after the revolution of 1949, China allied itself
with the Soviet Union and gave assistance to independence
movements in Southeast Asia. It also provided troops to
assist the North Koreans in their efforts to unify their
country in 1950, and aided the Vietnamese in their battle
to expel the French from Indochina in the early 1950s.
From the early 1960s, however, China's relations with the
Soviet Union soured, mainly due to Khrushchev's repudia-
tion of Stalin's policies. At the same time, China also lost
support among the neutral, newly independent countries of
the developing world when it crushed anti-Chinese opposi-
tion in Tibet, and entered into a border dispute with India.
The Cultural Revolution was a period of intense xenopho-
bia, but in 1971 Mao, in an apparent reversal of policy,
welcomed President Nixon's initiative to normalize relations
with the United States. In October of that year the People's
Republic of China replaced Taiwan in the United Nations
and re-entered the world stage.
China after Mao
Mao's death in 1976 initiated a power struggle between the
"Gang of Four" (which included Mao's widow) and Deng
Xiaoping. Deng emerged the victor, and during his era
(1978-97) pragmatism prevailed. Faced with a rapidly
expanding population (map 1 and bar chart), economic
growth became the stated priority, to be brought about by a
policy of "four modernizations" (in industry, agriculture,
science and technology, and the army). China's industrial
output rose steadily during the 1980s, and increased dra-
matically during the 1990s by over 20 per cent each year. In
the agricultural sector China made important gains through
the reform of farming practices. Although the total land area
committed to agriculture remained much the same, yields
improved enormously (map 2).
From 1978 onwards state ownership and planning were
reduced, "the market" was respected and nurtured, and
property rights were gradually defined. Communes were
abolished and citizens permitted to run private businesses
and engage in market activities. Instead of attempting to
make China self-sufficient, the new regime adopted an
export-led growth strategy, copied from other newly indus-
trialized countries.
Demands for democracy
As China became more open to Western economic princi-
ples and ideology during the 1980s, many people, in
particular students, began also to demand modernization of
the political system. Although the paramount leader Deng
resisted these demands, Communist Party General
Secretary Hu Yaobang was more open to change. Hu's demo-
tion and subsequent death triggered pro-democracy
demonstrations in many major cities during April 1989.
Throughout May demonstrators occupied the vast Tian-
anmen Square in Beijing, demanding Deng's dismissal and
political reform. With the world's press watching, the
Chinese government held back for several weeks. However,
overnight on 3-4 June the army moved in to disperse the
demonstrators. Hundreds were killed and thousands were
injured; arrests, imprisonments and executions followed.
The international outrage that resulted soured China's rela-
tions with the outside world and briefly affected foreign
investment , which had, since the 1980s, been channelled
through China's "Special Economic Zones" and "open
cities" (map 3 and bar chart).
In July 1997, shortly after Deng's death, Hong Kong was
returned to Chinese rule (and designated a "Special
Administrative Region"). Later that year the Chinese gov-
ernment decided to privatize state-owned enterprises
operating at a loss - roughly 30 per cent of the state sector.
With mounting unemployment from the collapse of the
public sector, the trend towards a semi-capitalist society
continues in uneasy contrast to the strict party control,
creating a great deal of uncertainty about the political and
economic future of the world's most populous nation.
2 Land productivity and major
industrial centres in the 1980s
~\ &ioin production per mourn.
^■' «is (.000 kg/ho iovor iMti In/KW
1 3,750 » 6,000 l$ft« a.m It 5, 340 b/«rel
Z\ 3.000 » U50 kg/to 17.470 103,338 b/ttn)
Z\ W« 3.000 to/to Mh 2,670 t/om)
^] naimgriojltural iand
Indusftiot wrpirt per annum oh
® 30,000 to 70,000 million yiim
o 70.000 lo 30,000 mfcn yun
• 10.000 to 20,000 infc" HOT
o 5,000 nl 0,000 nSmyiOT
Beifog
JwKhou„ .^Amtnir
I LarihoLL '
*"*\y
JatyuorP
h'll.ilM.'ll''
wfc
Unnjin
■ Zibo
DoSkin
Jfantai
°Oii>9d«
Chengdu
Ts~ ,***»
SnincO® Shanghai
Hangzliou
Nuigba
f
^ 'U -:.q.i" .
TAIWAN
Ocean
A The majority of industrial production in
the 1 980s was to be found along the
Yangtze River, which was used to transport
row materials and finished goods to internal
and foreign markets.
T Communist China represents a vast
potential market to the capitalist economies.
Special Economic Zones, in which a free
market economy (including foreign goods
and capital) could function, were established
by the Chinese government in the 1 980s as
an experiment. They were followed by
"open cities", initially along the coast but
later inland, where foreign businesses have
special access to the vast Chinese market.
Foreign capital invistmeht in China 1983-93
"V [in billions of dollars]
— u iS £l ^fc ^^ — i ^
U ^. ^* ^z ^ :ss se i=
.^L. ^* ^* ^ cS S
KrVattboufi
donechun
KOREA
SOUTH
KOREA-
JAPAN
N artona,
Chongqing
Chnngiha
Hw wh ong
Obfyong
JGbftMnQ
Nomwig GwnsiKou fjSMrtou
^iwSi zW »"q.° *w*' TA
VIETNAM^ * Hong Kong
• Jhonfeng «"" fJ ' """' ""l
LAOS C □ ,
Wonihou
3 Opehgtiesahb Special
hou
Economic Zones
s
• City optntd to Sasgn
iVAN
noeeml'SOi
*"■
O City opened to beige
radon lWQi
O (Mindly
D Speed ttcwnk ?coj
O THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA 1911-49 pages 224-25
255
AFRICA
SINCE 1939
During the heyday of colonial power in Africa in the
1920s and 1930s, it looked as though European
control would survive into the far distant future
(pages 206-7). The ease with which African countries were
drawn into the Second World War highlighted their status
as European possessions. North Africa became a major
theatre of conflict, and many African soldiers served with
the Allied armies. African colonies were also used as major
sources of vital raw materials and foodstuffs.
The war stimulated economic development in Africa.
Industrialization and urbanization increased markedly, as
did the production of foodstuffs and cash crops by African
cultivators. In political terms, the refusal of the colonial
powers to extend to Africa the democratic ideals for which
they had fought in Europe sharpened Africans' sense of the
injustice of colonialism. The independence granted to India
in 1947 and other countries in Asia around this time
encouraged African nationalists to press for similar political
freedoms in their own continent. The rise of an educated
African elite, which took advantage of new economic oppor-
tunities and skill shortages in the colonial bureaucracy,
provided a social base for the developing anti-colonial con-
sciousness. A growing desire for independence was also
fuelled by the fact that in the years immediately after the
war, Britain and France relied on African raw materials,
purchased at artificially depressed prices, to rebuild their
shattered economies. Between 1945 and 1951 Britain made
a profit of £140 million on commodity transactions with its
African colonies, while injecting only £40 million in return
via the Colonial Development and Welfare Acts.
The gaining of independence
The speed with which the process of gaining independence
swept through Africa was in many ways a mirror image of
the hasty 19th-century partition of Africa among the colo-
nial powers. Libya gained independence in 1951 largely
because the United Nations could not agree who should
control the former Italian colony. The vast British-con-
trolled Sudan gained independence in 1956, as did the
French colony of Tunisia. It was, however, the achievement
of independence by the Gold Coast as Ghana in 1957,
spearheaded by the charismatic pan-Africanist leader
► With o lew exceptions Ihe boundaries g
colonial Africa, hastily dtown in Ihe "scramble
for Africa", conliniwd into modern timet as
the boundaries of Ihe new independent
stales. Wors in southern Sudan, Zaire and ihe
linfran region ol Nigeria nil failed la
establish new stales. Eritrea [grunted to
Ethiopia by ihe British in I %7) Finally broke
away from Ethiopia alter a protracted 1
struggle. Ihe sell prodoimed 1 SomoSond
Republic was less successful al establishing
independence. Western Sahara was occupied
by Morocco after being granted
independence by Spain in 1 976 SENEGAL
|IWW| '
▼ Far most slotes the DokorQ
establishment ol a democratic Banjul^
system with multi-party elections has
taken several decodes, and a few have
yet to achiever) In the late ) 98k and 1990s,
however, the mcreasingry strong grassroots
support lar democracy was rejnhxced by Ihs
rotopse ol comranhm w Ihe Soviet Union [to
which marry autocratic African leaders had
looked lar ideological inspiration I nnd by
pressures (ram the International Monetary
Fund Old the World Bank la democratize as a
i of loan extensions.
2 Muuipunr duboimt
I] Mdnpany sysiBrn bv encS 1»B8 .
^ firsa ™lhjtortv ektnr
1989-98
3] No rwlrprry electron by 1999
• Multiparty system rfisrupted
d»g pawn 989-eork» 1919
-VAZIIAND
"SOOTH ^LESOTHO
■ AfRlCA
CapetowfP
1 Independent AfRia
■ Onto Mnknd toil
Coi^mK rhar ganerf independence:
~ mms r~~ - -
J 1MS-H Hatlerl?64
^ from Bi AMun siute
\1966\ Ctoto of independence
*> Active aimed unrkoiamil
indepmdaiutt rniMmBnr
■0 SMeBurieF nrnwrl struggle
cJtw indapencSornij
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
4 South Africa aftfs afmthhd
hmrcjd huitirf
Pony k cofltrsi s( Prwrajl AssmiWf 1 9H
3 AM™ NoIbibI toons UNO
| UtaolPEny
^| WfltoFiKdmhrt,
Kwame Nkrumah, that sparked off a wave of decolonization
in sub-Saharan Africa. Ghana provided a model of relatively
peaceful transition to independence, while in French-con-
trolled Algeria and British-occupied Kenya protracted and
bitter insurrection was waged by the National Liberation
Front (FLN) and the Mau Mau movement respectively.
Most African colonies gained their independence in the
years between 1956 and 1962 (map 1). In some instances
the process was hurried and unplanned. The hastily granted
independence of the Belgian Congo (Zaire, now Democratic
Republic of Congo) in 1960 resulted in the attemptedseces-
sion of the copper-rich southern region, giving rise to
political instability and foreign interference that character-
ized the post-independence history of many African states.
Not all African countries gained independence during
the first wave of national liberation. The Portuguese colonies
of Angola and Mozambique finally won independence only
after a coup d'etat in Lisbon in April 1974, led by General
Spinola. The struggle in Guinea-Bissau (which had claimed
its independence a year earlier) persuaded Spinola that the
Portuguese African empire could no longer be sustained. A
bitter guerrilla war was also fought in Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe), against a white colonial regime that had pro-
claimed its own independence from Britain in 1965. After
Zimbabwe, where black African rule was finally achieved in
1980, the only African states still to achieve freedom for
blacks were South Africa and its illegally occupied satellite,
Namibia (map 3). Although Namibia won its independence
in 1990, black South Africans did not vote in a national elec-
tion until 1994, when Nelson Mandela (who had spent 27
years as a political prisoner) became president (map 4).
After independence
The upsurge of African nationalism, which brought so many
countries to independence, also engendered huge optimism
and unrealistic expectations of rapid economic development.
All too often, however, the new governing elites were ill-
prepared for office, ambitious development plans went awry,
expectations of rapid industrialization were misplaced, and
political instability became endemic. During the Cold War
(podges 244-45) competition for influence in Africa became
an important proxy for global conflict, and former colonial
powers could exert great economic power. Foreign aid was
often provided in the form of military training and weaponry,
rather than as a stimulus to economic development.
•4 Under the "apartheid" system in South
Africa ( 1 948-91 ) many black Africans were
forced to live in "homelands" often far from
the main labour markets. Violent protests,
coupled with international economic
pressure, eventually led to President de
Klerk's announcement of the abolition of
apartheid and the release from prison of the
ANC leader, Nelson Mandela, in 1990.
When the Ghanaian president Nkrumah was deposed in
a coup in 1966, much of the early optimism for independent
Africa began to wane. The civil war that broke out when
Biafra sought to secede from Nigeria in 1967 highlighted the
problems of military involvement in civil affairs, and of the
failure of nationalism to supersede ethnic divisions.
Economic and social developments
Many African countries have made solid economic and
social progress since independence, with massive provision
of primary and secondary schooling, and the extension of
basic health facilities. Growing networks of rural clinics and
the availability of cheap drugs have done much to enhance
life expectancy and improve infant mortality figures,
although the rapid spread of AIDS in some regions is effec-
tively undoing many of these advances (pages 274—79).
Following independence, countries such as Ghana and
Mozambique adopted the rhetoric of socialist transforma-
tion; others, such as Kenya and the Ivory Coast, proclaimed
the benefits of capitalism, while Tanzania sought to disen-
gage itself from the world economy and concentrate on
autonomous development. Although none of these
approaches proved particularly successful in the long run,
many African countries made considerable economic
progress in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of relatively high
commodity prices. In Nigeria the exploitation of oil reserves
provided spectacular wealth for its political elite.
Africa suffered a major economic crisis in the 1970s as
a result of massive increases in oil prices (pages 272-73).
Falling commodity prices and increased interest rates
severely affected those economies that had been encouraged
to borrow on international markets. By the mid-1980s
some, such as Zambia, were so stricken by debt that they
had no option but to accept "structural adjustment pro-
grammes" proposed by the International Monetary Fund,
remodelling their economies on free-market principles and
enforcing cuts in social provision. As a result, large parts of
Africa experienced economic stagnation during the 1980s.
In the early 1990s optimism replaced the euphoria of
the independence era and the gloom of the 1980s, as several
civil wars ended and democratic elections were held across
the continent. As the decade wore on, however, such opti-
mism appeared ill-founded as bitter ethnic and religious
disputes and civil wars broke out and the prospect of
democracy and development receded in several key states.
▲ The first national elections in which
black South Africans could vote were held in
April 1 994. Protests in Bophuthatswana
[map 3) and KwaZulu Natal had threatened
to disrupt them, but they passed off
relatively peacefully. The African National
Congress was victorious, taking 63 per cent
of the vote, and Nelson Mandela was sworn
in as President of South Africa in May 1 994.
▲ A wave ol popular support brought
Nelson Mandela to power in the 1 994
elections. Many material and social
advances have been made, although
expectations of rapid improvements in living
conditions for the black majority population
have proved somewhat over-optimistic.
© THE PARTITION OF AFRICA 1880-1939 pages 206-7
LATIN AMERICA
SINCE 1945
Manufacturing as a hbceniag£ of
Gross Domestic Product {GOP}
UNITED STATES
IMS
i
19W
I
r = r
19W
A The main Lnlin ftmeriran economies
hove met wild mixed success in their
attempts to industrialize. While tnuil and
Colombia managed lo improve their
manulactuting. output in lbs 1 950s (and
Mex'HO produced I spurt betmeen I960
nnd 1 980), oulpul lei Argentina end Chile
remained srolfc as a percentage of Gross
< The main exports of many countries
changed during ihe second lull of the 20th
rentury. Oil products, already by 1 955 the
main source of revenue far Venezuela, ot»
represented aver 40 per rent of total
experts ham Ecuador and Mexico by 1 990.
la most countries, however, wilh the notable
exception o! Brail raw materials continue
to be the main e sporty pointing lo Latin
America's consistent failure to increase its
montrlochrring output.
Since 1945 the countries of Latin r.
America have adopted two quite distinct
strategies of economic development, the
first embracing the; idea that the state is the most
effective engine of growth, and the second reject-
ing this idea. Until the mid-1960s, most countries
were committed to state-led industrialization, with
the aim of achieving virtual self-sufficiency in
both manufacturing and heavy industry. Economic
nationalism was a dominant ideology, with govern-
ments seeking to maximize their control over the
production of raw materials. During the 1080s, largely as
a consequence of the debt crises that had by then hit all
the Latin American economies, neo-liberal orthodoxy swept
the region, with most governments implementing policies
of deregulation, privatization, encouragement of foreign
investment and fiscal reform.
Failure of industrialization
The industrialization strategy, known as import -substitution
industrialization (ISl), which had been officially endorsed by
the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America
in 1940, was deemed a failure within 15 years (pages
272-73). By the mid-1 9611s government-led industrialization
had not only failed to generate the anticipated number of
jobs, but had also not progressed much beyond light industry
and proved unable to compete effectively in local or inter-
national markets. This was partly the result of weaknesses
within the strategy itself, which required Latin American
countries to import more in the short term in order to estab-
lish their industries, leading to balance of payments
difficulties. Another problem was Latin America's enduring
technology and communications gaps: the more developed
economies produced goods that were not only of higher
quality, but were also marketed with far greater sophistica-
tion. The politicization of economic decision-making by
Latin American states also had a detrimental effect on indus-
trialization policies. Some Latin American countries did
become more industrialized during the 1950s and 1960s
{bar c/njrrs), but were still far more dependent on the
production of raw materials (mujj 1} than had l>een antici-
pated when the policy of IS! was launched.
International debt <:msis
The failure of the industrialization model was one factor
contributing to the debt crises that hit Latin America in the
early 1980s. The major cause, however, was the disintegra-
tion, during the 1960s, of the system of international
financial regulation that had been in place since 1944.
When oil price rises in 197.1 led to a surplus of "petro-
dollars" on the international lending markets, Latin
American countries, which had never succeeded in gener-
ating internally the levels of capital needed for development,
appeared to be ideal targets for loans. With economic
depression and inflation in the developed economies, these
loans were effectively set at very low, or even negative,
interest rates. When US interest rates rose dramatically in
the early 1980s, Latin American countries found themselves
(
\
1 Main hpohts in rat 1990s
ignnifjtf arofors.
^ W
»
M
it.
bourns
* Wis
A
HHfjUMM
(
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♦
mceybdflfam
\
«'
•noire
*H fak/Iistt products
A
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•
citrus fruit
3? rhtiPfB
:■
1 llil'l:
■~ :
o
Mgpj ml
Merit Mid fuefc:
*
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—
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M Qfajrcnun
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whept
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1
rnnhw
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tnonufuctured goods
unable to service their debts. As bankers hastened to call
on the services of the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
most debtor countries were obliged to sign stabilization
agreements svith the IMF as a prerequisite to the resched-
uling of their debts. The aim of these agreements was to cut
spending and increase exports, thereby maximizing revenue
to make interest payments.
The 1980s are referred to as "the lost decade" of Latin
American development; economies contracted and there
was a huge net transfer of capital out of the region. In the
1990s capital investment returned to Latin America, and it
is now aerepted that much of the original debt will probably
not be repaid. However, Latin America could continue to be
burdened by interest payments well into the 2 1st century.
ATLAS OF WORLD HI5T0II: FAIT 5
Pen .I'M c : \ i. n k t ■ ki a ) (■ >i i:vrs
Politically, this period saw the introduction of full suffrage
throughout the region, with women granted the vote by the
inid-l*)SOs in all Latin American countries, and literacy qual-
ifications gradually dropped, although not until as late as
]')S') in I he ease of Hrazil. However, for much of the period
the democratic process was eoni promised at best, and com-
pletely suspended at worst. Most countries were governed by
populist regimes in the 1940s and 1950s which, although
elected, tended to use dictatorial methods once in power.
Argentina's Juan Domingo Peron ( 1 '146-55) was the classic
example. Nevertheless, populism generated a level of politi-
cal activity among the masses which alarmed those in the
property-owning classes to such an extent that most were
prepared to support military coups in the 1 Wilts and 1970s.
Such fears were shared by l.\S governments, whose long-
standing concerns about political stability in Latin America
Itad acquired particular urgency because of the Cold War
tp(n>cs 244- 45). During the laic 1940s and 1950s, the
United States had taken care to consolidate not only its
political alliances with Latin American nations (in the
Organization of American States) but also its military links,
with the L'SA supplying most of Latin America's weapons
and military training {map 2), In these circumstances, the
military coups of the 1960s and 1970s ushered in regimes
influenced partly by the management techniques and
MB8C0
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1 US INnttVENTIDN IN
Latin America
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GUYANA
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Atlantic
1 USA attempts In thworl election ol FW6n [ I 9161
I Popular Revolution neutiaJiied by US economic pressure 1 1 952)
I CIA oi jani jed invasion overthrows Arbeni [1951) following expropriation
of Untied Fruit Company lands
4 NirPranolii t r evo l»li on 1 1 9 59 h nri o llirrra* with USSR 1 1 WO). USA dBtlora
economic embargo and CIA organizes foiled Boy of Pigs invasion (1961).
CubonMiMilttrivsllMll
5 ( nv d 1 1 1 ni i! i version by USA ogoinsl elected Mot * isl gover nrnini
ol Popular Uttily (1970-731
6 Military intervention lo suppress possible communist influence (1965)
7 Revolution 1 1 97 9): USA fundi counter- revojuliomn y movement 980s I
6 Cover) intervention by USA to defeat led wing guerrillas (1980-88)
1 OS inversion to restore stobta government II 9B3]
10 IIS invosion to arrest President Noriega an charges ol drug tr of licking (1989)
11" Negotiated" US invasion to restore democracy (1994)
12 North American fteeliode Agieemeni (19911
A In the second hoK of the KBb century
the United Slotes ei tended its sphere of
influence beyond its immediate neighbours
in Central Amerira and the Caribbean into
South Americo. II used ml only covert but
also occasionally dired methods in its
attempts to qucsh what it perceived as
attempts by the Soviet Onion to gain
a foothold in Itte OSA's "baekyord' ihrough
tommunisf inspired political ri
:■' . dominican
Cuba* republic
HAITI '
A 1 1 nntii;
v^. Ocean
VENEZUELA.- , GUYANA
/ SURINAM
COIOM61A ■ S, J A JRENCH GUIANA
3 Ethnic composition
■
■Vii'!Lm:-i Ih:|ii:-|'.
Empnh
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Jfaaif/ffifefiffi;
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cw#r 1O0Tn<teft
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30-lffl) -nion
15-30 mlvi
□
infer 15 mflon
» The vuriety in ethnic composition in the
rounhies ol lotin Americo b striking. Even
adjacent countries such os Argentina, BoTrvio
and Paraguay have markedly different
ethnic proportions, In mony ports of the
region the brood term 'latin' appears
singularly inappropriate.
development economies learned either in the USA itself or
at national military training schools based on the I IS model.
The military leaders argued thai only they were capable of
bringing about national development and that the demo-
cratic process would have to he suspended until the country
was "ready" for electoral politics. The repression for which
these regimes became internationally condemned was
directed initially at the Left, but gradually acquired a
random nature designed to inhibit all political activity, even
among moderates.
Although the military stayed in power for lengthy
periods of time (Brazil l'J64-M5, Argentina IVTrWi.l and
Chile 1*773-8')). they proved no more able than civilian
politicians to achieve economic development: indeed, they
presided over the debt crises (and, in many eases, their
purchases of weapons contributed substantially to the
debt). A process of redemoerati/ation began in Latin
America in l')8l>, and by I'J'JU there were elected govern-
ments in even' country of the region apart from Cuba,
Most Latin American countries are still some distance
away from being fully consolidated liberal democracies,
with civilian emu ml over the military, respect for civil
rights, freedom of the press and broadly representative polit-
ical parties. The process of resisting authoritarianism
stimulated a wide range of grassroots organizations con-
cerned with, for example, human rights, women's issues and
neighbourhood self-help, many of which are reluctant to be
recruited by formal political parties. The question of ethnic
identities {map 3) also assumed an increasing significance,
particularly in l'W2, the quineentemiial of the Kuropean
'conquest", "discovery" or "encounter" with the Americas.
(The very term used to describe Columhus's landing in 1492
is highly disputed, reflecting the intractability of the ethnic
and cultural issues at stake.) There is still a potentially dan-
gerous gap between the concerns of the people and of the
government in many Latin American countries.
Ab>t*ttnl954rjctdl958fidelCrrstroW
o revolutionary movement in (aba that
resulted in the overthrow af the dictator
Fulgencio Balrsto an 1 January 1 959 and
rhe instaJction ol Centra as presioerrt.
© LATIN AMERICA l'/l-t-tS ;ic«tor JJ6-.V
?S»
THE MIDDLE EAST
SINCE 1945
T An estimated 70 per cent of the world's
known oil reserves are located in the Middle
East and North Africa, mainly on the
Arabian Peninsula and in the Gulf. The
resultant oil boom facilitated the rapid
modernization of the producer states. It also
contributed to the economies of the
surrounding countries, partly through the
wages paid to immigrant workers in Saudi
Arabia and the Gulf states, and partly
through the provision by the oil-rich
countries of politically motivated
development aid. The Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC),
whose most powerful members are in the
Middle East, attempts to ensure a minimum
price for crude oil by controlling supplies.
During the Second World War calls for independence
intensified from the territories in the Middle East held
as mandates by the French and British. Lebanon and
Syria, both promised independence by the Free French gov-
ernment during the war, achieved this status by 1946 (map 1).
In the same year Britain relinquished its mandate of Jordan, but
was left with the growing problem of its mandate in Palestine.
The new State of Israel
The issue of whether a Jewish State should be established in
Palestine became a focal point of international politics. The
mass influx of refugees from Nazi-occupied territories and the
suggestion by the United Nations that Palestine be divided into
Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem as an international
zone (map 2), exacerbated tensions (already high in the inter-
war period) between the growing Jewish immigrant
community and the Arab inhabitants of the region. A civil war
between Arabs and Jews from November 1947 escalated into
an international war between Israel (proclaimed a state on 14
May 1948 after the British withdrawal) and the Arab countries
of Egypt, Syria and Iraq, which ended in an Arab defeat and
armistice agreements by July 1949.
More than 700,000 Palestinians fled to refugee camps in the
West Bank and East Jerusalem (the remaining Arab parts of
Palestine, annexed by Jordan in 1950), Gaza (ocupied by
Egypt), and other Arab countries. Further wars between Israel
and its neighbours, in 1956, 1967 and 1973, resulted in the
Israeli occupation of the West Bank, East Jerusalem, Gaza Strip
and the Golan Heights (map 3). Sinai, captured by Israel in
1967, returned to Egypt under a peace treaty in March 1979. In
1964 the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) began a
guerrilla war against Israel, and in 1987 a Palestinian Intifada
(uprising) increased pressure on Israel to negotiate. The Oslo
Agreement (1993) led to limited self-rule for the Palestinians
in parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip vacated by Israeli
forces. Peace talks stalled over the status of the city of
Jerusalem, terrorist attacks on Israel, and the continued build-
ing of Jewish settlements in the occupied territories. In 2000,
after the breakdown of peace negotiations, a second Intifada
broke out and the cycle of violence continued. However, in
January 2005 a new president of the Palestinian Authority was
elected on a platform of renewing the peace process.
Events in Lebanon
The Arab-Israeli conflict spilled into neighbouring Lebanon,
where a delicate balance of power existed between Maronite
Christians, and Shi'ite and Sunni Muslims. After 1970,
Lebanon became a major base for Palestinian guerrilla warfare
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
against Israel. In 1975 civil war erupted between the Christian
Phalangists, backed by the Israelis, and Lebanese Muslims,
backed by the Syrians and the PLO. Although the Agreement
of Ta'if (1989) prepared the ground for peace, fighting only
ended in 1991, with victory for the Muslims. In 2000, Israeli
troops withdrew from southern Lebanon, and Syria-backed
Hizbollah forces moved in.
Socialism, nationalism and fundamentalism
Defeat by Israel in 1949 served as a catalyst for the emergence
in Egypt, Syria and Iraq of army-led, nationalist, secular regimes
that advocated socialist reforms to improve living conditions for
the countries' rapidly growing populations. Gamal Abdel Nasser
of Egypt became the champion of Arab nationalism, advocating
non-alignment, with some co-operation with the Soviet Union,
as a way of curtailing the influence of Western powers in the
Middle East. In 1956 Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal
led to a failed attempt by Israeli, British and French troops to
gain control of this vital sea-route. Egypt's anti-Western
approach was opposed by Saudi Arabia, Israel and Iran, who
saw Egypt's growing power as a threat. The conflict was played
out in a proxy war, when Egypt and Saudi Arabia supported
opposing sides in the civil war in Yemen in 1962-69 (map 1).
By the 1970s, most of the major industrialized countries
relied on oil from the Middle East - a situation that the Arab
members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (map 1) used to their advantage when they
placed an oil embargo on countries who supported Israel in
its 1973 war with Egypt and Syria (pages 272-73).
The tensions arising from the widening social rifts in many
oil-rich states resulted in the emergence of "political Islam",
which combined radical religious teaching of Islam with the
desire for social and political change. The Iranian revolution of
1979 under Ayatollah Khomeini, with its specifically Shi'ite
character, encouraged other Islamic opposition movements.
These erupted across the Middle East, from Egypt to
Afghanistan. In Afghanistan, Islamic groups fought the Soviet
intervention of 1979 before engaging in a civil war which
resulted in the Taliban establishing a fundamentalist govern-
ment in 1997. In October 2001, the United States launched
air strikes against Afghanistan after the Taliban refused to
hand over Osama bin Laden, based in Afghanistan and leader
of the al-Qaeda terrorist network which was held responsible
for the attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001
(pages 242-43). In December 2001, opposition forces, backed
by US and British special forces overthrew the Taliban, and
formed an interim government.
Wars in the Gulf region
The Iranian revolution caused particular concern in neigh-
bouring Iraq, which feared a similar rebellion from its own large
population of Shi'ite Muslims. Both countries also included
large Kurdish populations, and Iraq accused Iran of supporting
an uprising of the Iraqi Kurds in 1979. The main motive for an
Iraqi attack on Iran in 1980, however, was to expand into the
oil-rich region on their joint border (map 4). At the end of an
eight-year war in which an estimated one million people died,
neither side had made significant gains. During the war, Iraq
received aid from most of the Arab states and, shortly before
the end of the fighting, used chemical weapons against its own
Kurdish population, some of whom had supported Iran.
Debts incurred by Iraq in its war against Iran, territorial
claims, disputes over the price to charge for oil, and loss of
prestige were all factors that contributed to Iraq's invasion of
Kuwait on 2 August 1990. Ignoring international condemna-
tion, Iraq annexed Kuwait and could not be persuaded by
United Nations sanctions to withdraw. In January 1991 an
international alliance led by the United States declared war on
Iraq, initially concentrating on an aerial bombardment of Iraqi
military installations. On 24 February, ground forces moved in,
and by the end of February Iraqi troops retreated from Kuwait.
Iraq's subsequent suppression of revolts by Shi'ite Muslims in
the south and Kurds in the north led to UN-backed "no-fly
zones" for Iraqi aircraft north of the 36th and south of the 32nd
parallels. Rivalries among Kurdish groups, Iraqi intervention,
Medtemmean
LEBANON
Hpifoj'
2 The Palestine Conflict
1947-49
Proposed bf-IIN I W:
21 Jewr^i state
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3 The Arm-Israeli Wars 1967 and 1 973
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SAUDI
ARABIA
and repeated invasion by Turkish troops seeking to suppress
the revolt in Turkish Kurdistan by eliminating camps in Iraq,
reduced the Kurds to abject poverty. The whole Iraqi popula-
tion suffered from punitive economic sanctions, imposed in an
attempt to force the Iraqi government to comply with UN
requirements to eradicate its weapons of mass destruction. In
2003, US-led forces invaded Iraq over its alleged possession of
such weapons and overthrew the regime of Saddam Hussein.
A democratically elected government was established in 2005
but civil order was still a long way from being restored.
▲ The UN's proposed division of Israel was
abandoned after Israeli independence in
May 1948 (mapZ. Israel also expanded its
territory in 1 967 and 1 973, although the
Sinai region was returned to Egypt in 1979.
T Iraq's desire for further oil-rich territory
prompted its attacks on Iran in 1980 and on
Kuwait in 1 990. Despite heavy casualties,
Iraq failed to moke territorial gains.
4 Wars in the Gulf region
1980-88 and 1990-9!
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tan-Em War 5980-83
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© OUTCOMES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1918-29 pages 220-21
THE FORMER REPUBLICS OF THE
SOVIET UNION SINCE 1989
▼ iha Soviet Union ms formally abolished
in December 1 991 and the Sonet Societal
Republic became independent slates. Must
felt ttie need Fc-r same degree af continuity
in defence international relations and
currency, and they eventually formed the
Commonwealth of Independent Slates (CIS).
This has, however, enjoyed Smiled success.
with the porliaments of many of the stoles
onxious to assert theit outanomy The
Russian Federation is divided into
administrative regions thai are directly
controlled from Moscow and constituent
republics whidi, since 1 993, hove been
entitled lo their own constitutions.
Following the passing of discriminatory
ethnic lows In many of the new slates.
around three million Russians returned lo
their native country during the 1990s. There
vras ii 11 moyemenl between the new slates
over the some period. The descendants af
Germans encouraged lo settle along ihe
Volga by Cothe rinc the Grenl in the 1 8]h
century, bul moved to Cenltal Asia by Stalin
in the 1 940s, migrated bad: lo Germany.
Many Asians migroled lo Belarus and
Ukraine in the hope af finding an easy route
into western Europe.
Mikhail I inrbaehov became the General Secretary of
the Communist Party - and as such supreme ruler ill
the Soviet Union - in March 1985. He appointed
reformers stieh as Yakovlev. Rykov and Shevardnadze to
positions of power, and introduced a policy ol' pcivstruika
(economic restructuring), which attempted to introduce
competition and market forces into the planned economy.
Although heavy industry and collective farms remained
under state control, private individuals could form co-oper-
atives, Non- profitable firms were no longer propped up by
the slate. Inn allowed to go bankrupt. Nevertheless, eco-
nomic growth continued to fall, while crime, inflation and
unemployment rose. Strikes among miners in 1989 were
the first sign of popular discontent at the Soviet Union's eco-
nomic problems, exacerbated by the devastation caused by
the explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in 1986 and
the Armenian earthquake of 1988.
DEMOCrUTliVTKjN
Gorbachev also introduced a policy of g/u-snost (openness),
leading to an almost free press which, ironically, under-
mined his hopes of reviving support for a reformed
Leninism. Democratization of the Communist Party appa-
ratus allowed a choice of candidates in elections, followed
by the participation of other parties in the Congress of
People's Deputies in the summer of 1989, Finally, Article
of the Soviet constitution, which guaranteed the Communist
Party a monopoly of power, was abolished in February 1991),
and Gorbachev was appointed President of the Soviet
Union. Mis radical approach to internal affairs was matched
by his foreign policy. The withdrawal of Soviet troops from
Afghanistan in 1988-89, negotiations with the United States
to end the arms race, and encouragement of, or tacit
support for, the countries of Eastern Europe in
their hid to free themselves from Soviet dom-
ination in 1989— 90 all had a tremendous
effect on world polities. However, while Gorbachev was
praised abroad for his hold foreign-policy decisions, his
popular support at home was waning. The economic crisis
within Russia in the autumn of 1990 proved a turning point.
A "500-day plan" for rapid market reform was rejected by
Gorbachev, as a consequence of which reformers left the
government, ami under pressure from political hard-liners
and military ami industrial leaders, Gorbachev appointed
more reactionary communists to power.
Meanwhile. Popular V roots lo support pcruHtruiku were
formed in the republics, enabling dissidents to stand in elec-
tions in the Socialist Republics in March 1990, and leading
to non-eonmtunist gains in areas such as the Ukraine and
Lithuania [map 1). Uy 1989 there were conflicts between
Moscow and the republics over religion, language and
control of the economy, between republics and their own
minorities, such as thai between Georgia and South Ossetia,
and between the republics of Azerbaijan and Armenia over
the region of Nagorno-Karabakh {map 2). The Baltic Slates
demanded outright independence but Gorbachev was des-
perate to keep the Soviet Union together, and force was used
in Vilnius I Lithuania), as well as in Tbilisi (Georgia) and
Baku (Azerbaijan). The rise of Russian nationalism allowed
Boris Yeltsin, sacked by Gorbachev from the position of
Mayor of Moscow in 1987, to return to polities, first as head
of the Russian Supreme Soviet arid then as democratically
elected, anti-communist President of Russia, in June 1991.
The break-up of the Soviet Union
Gorbachev's plan for a new Union Treaty, which recognized
the independence of the Baltic States and decentralized
power to the republics, sparked off a hard-
line communist coup against him in
August 1991 (map J), Yeltsin
managed to gain the support
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
► Ethnic tensions and rivalries in the
Caucasus region, held in check by the
centralized control of the Soviet Union,
broke out into armed conflicts after the
collapse of the Soviet Union in late 1 991 .
Many smaller regions within the larger
republics battled to achieve autonomy.
Chechenia declared independence from
Russia in 1 991 , but although Grozny and
the surrounding region was extensively
bombed, the Russian army failed to defeat
the guerrillas and the republic achieved rfe
iaito independence in 1997. Georgia was
also the scene of armed conflict, both for
control of the republic (1 991-93) and as a
result of successful attempts by the regions
of Ossetia and Abkhazia to assert their
independence. The republics of Armenia and
Azerbaijan waged a bloody war over control
of Nagorno-Karabakh, which Armenia won.
"5~~
against the rebels, and his defiance was largely responsible
for the failure of the coup. Thus Yeltsin's position was
strengthened, and although Gorbachev was reinstated his
power was diminished. The Ukrainian independence refer-
endum in December 1991 made the continuation of the
Soviet Union untenable, and when Yeltsin and the presi-
dents of Ukraine and Belarus met in Minsk to create the
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Soviet
Union collapsed into 15 independent republics (map 1).
Gorbachev resigned on 25 December 1991.
Yeltsin's presidency
Yeltsin, as President of the Russian Federation, inherited the
unresolved problems of his predecessor. Although he intro-
duced rapid market reform, including privatization, the
economic decline continued. Inflation reached 245 per cent
in January 1992, while industrial output slumped. Some
people made huge profits but savings were wiped out,
leading to real hardship among the population. The
Orthodox Church gained support, as did nationalist, right-
wing parties such as Zhirinovsky's Liberal Democrats.
Yeltsin did not call new elections for the communist-led
Supreme Soviet, now called the duma (parliament), but
ruled by decree instead. Furthermore, he did not form his
own political party, and neither did the democrats, thereby
weakening the democratic system. Yeltsin's banning of the
Communist Party in 1991 was declared unconstitutional,
and led to its rebirth under Zyuganov. From December 1992
there was open conflict between Yeltsin and the duma, and
Yeltsin replaced his reformist prime minister with the more
conservative Viktor Chernomyrdin.
Yeltsin won public support in a referendum in April
1993, but conflict with the duma continued and in
September it was dissolved. The political leaders within the
duma retaliated by proclaiming Yeltsin's removal from the
presidency, with the result that in October they were
besieged in the parliament building. Their response was to
order an attack on the Kremlin and other key buildings,
leading to a three-hour battle. The army rescued Yeltsin and
shelled parliament, leaving 145 dead and over 700 injured.
New elections resulted once again in a majority for the
Nationalists-Communists, but Yeltsin, although in ill-health,
won the presidential elections of June 1996. His reformist
policies failed once again to improve the economy.
A financial collapse in the summer of 1998 discredited
the market reformers and brought a new conflict between
Yeltsin and the duma, with the latter rejecting Yeltsin's
attempt to restore Chernomyrdin as prime minister. The
following year Yeltsin resigned in favour of Vladimir Putin.
Nationalist demands
Nationalism, responsible for the break-up of the Soviet
Union, also threatened the Russian Federation. Autonomous
republics, such as Tatarstan and Yakutia (now Sakha),
demanded "sovereignty", in which their own laws would
take precedence over those of Moscow. Yeltsin's Union
Treaty of March 1992 compromised by granting them con-
siderable autonomy, and finally even Tatarstan signed in
February 1994. Chechenia split from Ingushetia and
declared independence after the August 1991 coup. At the
end of 1994, Yeltsin sent in Russian troops, which were
forced to withdraw in 1997 (map 2). In 1999 a fresh Russian
offensive was launched against the separatists, but it failed
to end their military and terrorist campaign.
men*
RUSSIA
U
1
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2 Caucasus region 1966-99
lu'eninnwol boundary
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Conflict continued on the peripheries of the old Soviet
Union. The so-called Dnestr Republic (map 1) rejected
Moldovan rule with Russian military support, and there was
conflict between Russia and Ukraine over the Crimea and
over which country should control the ships of the former
Soviet navy, based in the Black Sea. Newly independent
republics brought in citizenship laws that discriminated
against Russian residents, causing a migration of ethnic
Russians into Russia (map 1). In Georgia, President
Gamsakhurdia's extreme nationalism led to his overthrow
in 1992. The new president, Shevardnadze, clamped down
on civil war and joined the CIS, but lost Abkhazia when the
province rebelled with Russian support (map 2). Azerbaijan
and other oil-rich states in Central Asia attracted Western
investment, but a revival of Islamic fundamentalism led to
civil war in Tajikistan. At the beginning of the 21st century
the future of the region remained uncertain, both in
economic terms and in relation to democratic reform.
3 The August rebellion 1991
| tehw.Br had** Mflwsutwi roup leaden
I 1 Arunn b> Qweiranenl supportm
■.•■ ftjilairiy »ired
k Mikhail Gorbachev, who led the Soviet
Union through a period of rapid reform in
the late 1 980s, was forced to resign in
December 1991 when the Soviet Union
broke up into its constituent republics.
■A In August 1 991 Moscow experienced
street fighting unprecedented since the
"October Revolution" of 1917. Hard-line
communists tried to reassert the Communist
Party's monopoly of power and prevent
President Gorbachev's proposed Union
Treaty from being signed, but the people of
Moscow took to the streets in support of the
government and barricaded the streets
around the Russian parliament (the White
House). Three of them were killed by the
army, which was divided in its support. With
Gorbachev a prisoner in his summer retreat
in the Crimea, Boris Yeltsin, then President
of Russia, eventually persuaded the army
to stand firm behind Gorbachev, and thus
defeated the communist rebels.
O THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE 1945-89 pages 236-37
EASTERN EUROPE
SINCE 1989
Increasing ethnic homogeneity
1930-91
I — 1 ) M0/3I
czi mo/9i
i I-
▲ Boundary changes, war losses,
extermination, migration, expulsions and
population exchanges between 1938 and
1 948 significantly reduced the ethnic mix in
all Eastern European countries so that there
was a higher degree of ethnic homogeneity
in 1 991 than had been the case in 1 930.
T The collapse of the communist regimes of
Eastern Europe occurred between 1 989 and
1990. In general, the "peoples' revolutions"
were carried off relatively peaceably. Only
in Romania, where the communist regime
put up a fight, and in the former Yugoslavia
did fighting break out.
Throughout the 1980s the communist regimes of
Eastern European underwent a profound crisis. They
experienced increasing economic difficulties as a
result of inefficiency, low productivity and declining growth,
compounded by the growing environmental crisis affecting,
in particular, parts of East Germany, Czechoslovakia and
Poland (pages 236-37). The unelected communist govern-
ments had always had trouble maintaining their legitimacy
in the eyes of their electorates, but since the radical reforms
introduced in the Soviet Union under Mikhail Gorbachev
they could no longer threaten critics with the ultimate sanc-
tion of Soviet military intervention.
In the second half of 1989 all the communist regimes
collapsed, although they did so in various ways (map 1). In
the most reformist of the communist regimes - Hungary -
the demise was gradual and was managed by the commu-
nist government itself. Some of its increasingly radical
measures had a profound effect on other communist gov-
ernments. The decision, for example, to open the borders
with Austria and let thousands of East German "tourists"
depart for the West forced the East German government
into belated attempts to save itself by offering concessions of
its own. In Poland, where the Solidarity movement chal-
lenged the hegemony of the state as early as 1979, the end
of communism was negotiated and brought about by partial
elections held as a result of negotiations between govern-
ment and opposition. The East German and Czechoslovak
regimes both collapsed as a result of public demonstrations.
In Bulgaria the government fell following a coup, which
overthrew Todor Zhivkov, and in Romania the end of the
Ceausescu regime was brought about by a violent uprising.
Political and economic transition
All the post-communist countries embarked on the con-
struction of a democratic system of government and the
conversion of a centrally planned economy into one that
was market-led. One of the major problems was their lack of
experience of democratic government. Although some insti-
tutional and legal changes, such as a multiparty system and
free elections, were introduced quite rapidly, the develop-
ment of a democratic political culture proved more difficult.
The bulk of the electorate still expected the state to guar-
antee not just security but also their well-being. Increasing
inflation and declining Gross Domestic Product (map 2)
caused most people's living standards to decline. In this eco-
nomic climate former communists gained significant
popular support with promises to minimize the negative
consequences of economic change.
The problem was how to liberalize and privatize an
economy under conditions of relative instability. Major dis-
agreements existed between the proponents of the
gradualist approach and those who advocated the "short,
sharp shock treatment" involving simultaneous radical lib-
eralization of prices and large-scale privatization. Some
countries - particularly those in which former communists
still held power, such as Romania and Bulgaria - adopted a
slow and often inconsistent approach; others, such as
Poland, adopted a radical path. Although the West provided
some financial and technical help, this was not on a scale
to make a significant difference, except in East Germany
where, after the reunification of Germany in 1990, the tran-
sition process was financed by a massive influx of West
German capital.
TO
1 The transition from communism
to deakxr acy 1989-96
-& Locofcn d turn cnJ unsl
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
A further aim of the post-communist countries was a
"return to Europe". In this respect Poland, Hungary and the
Czech Republic proved more successful than countries such
as Bulgaria and Romania. Not only were they in the first
wave of new entrants to NATO in 1999, but were among the
first group of applicants from Eastern Europe to be accepted
into the European Union in 2004 (map 2).
The effects of nationalism
Developments since 1989 have largely completed the
process - started in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
and accelerated by the Second World War - of the creation
of ethnically homogeneous states in the region (bar chart).
In post-communist Czechoslovakia the national grievances
felt by many Slovaks resurfaced and were compounded by
the fact that the process of industrialization undergone by
the region of Slovakia since 1948 had left it largely depen-
dent on markets in the Soviet Union and other Eastern
European countries. This placed it at a disadvantage in a
country that was increasingly seeking Western European
trading partners. Furthermore, while the Czechs preferred a
centralized state, the Slovaks sought a loose confederation.
These differences proved intractable and the Czechoslovak
state broke up on 1 January 1993 into two national states:
the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
In Yugoslavia the federal system developed by President
Tito in the 1950s and 1970s gave some credence to national
autonomy while controlling nationalist self-assertion in the
constituent republics. With the decline of communist power,
the economic disparities between the constituent republics
and the pressure for democratization gave rise to national-
ist resentments. Demands were made by Slovenia, Croatia
and Macedonia for a large measure of sovereignty, and by
Serb nationalists for a larger Serb state (to include parts of
Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina).
The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, with a Serb
population of 2 per cent of the total, achieved independence
peaceably in 1991. The process of independence in
Slovenia, which also included a Serb population of around
2 per cent, was accomplished in 1991 with only a brief
intervention by the Yugoslav (Serbian) army. In Croatia,
however, the conflict that broke out in 1991, following the
Croatian declaration of independence, was more violent,
with the Yugoslav army fighting on behalf of a Serbian
minority of around 12 per cent of the total.
The bloodiest conflict occurred in ethnically and reli-
giously mixed Bosnia-Herzegovina, where the 1991 census
showed that 31 per cent of the population were Serb, 17 per
cent Croat, and 44 per cent were classified as "Bosnian
Muslim" (although some of these were of no religious per-
suasion). An organized campaign of "ethnic cleansing" was
undertaken, principally by the Serbs, with the aim of creat-
ing ethnically homogeneous regions in Bosnia as a prelude
to its dismemberment and incorporation into Serbia and
Croatia. The war, and the terrorist methods used against the
civilian population, resulted in large-scale movements of
populations (map 3).
In Kosovo, a region in southern Serbia where the large
ethnic Albanian population sought independence, violence
erupted in 1998 between the Kosovo Liberation Army and
the Yugoslav army. Attempts to bring about a negotiated set-
tlement failed and ethnic Albanians in Kosovo became the
target of a Serbian campaign of ethnic cleansing. In June
1999, following a NATO campaign of air strikes, Serbian
forces withdrew as NATO troops entered Kosovo. The UN
then took over the administration of the province.
Significant Hungarian minorities remain in Romania and
Slovakia, and the Bulgarian population is around 10 per
cent Turk. There is also still a sizeable Roma population in
Romania, Hungary, Slovakia and the Czech Republic,
although accurate figures are difficult to come by. The Roma
people are subjected to a variety of forms of discrimination,
and a significant increase in violent incidents arising from
anti-Roma feelings since 1989 has encouraged many to
attempt to emigrate to Western Europe.
_^_
T
2 Economic development 1990-97
GDP in I m a o neramtrjjt il GDf «l I W' B33 Ctnwm« pr« into I H J
I I jo-eot ■ 90-ioos (iwfl=H»)
■ W-W. ■ 100-HOS CZE ta(ssmiv«nrtw*[uiipeffli
" fipuiKtBtMilntrleot Unon by 1998
invalidated by war conrjlitfis
■4 Hie varied approaches taken by the
elected governments over the conversion to
a (ree-market economy yielded varying
degrees of short-term success. In the mid-
1 990s Poland's more radical approach
appeared to have paid off, although at the
end of the 20th century it was still unclear
as to which country would be the most
successful in the long term. All the Eastern
European countries were keen to join the
European Union, but not all passed the EU's
various entry criteria, which relate to the
effectiveness of both their market economy
and their democratic system.
T In the constituent republics of the former
Yugoslavia, democratically elected
governments sought independence from the
Serb-dominated Yugoslav Federation. The
government of Serbia, however, was
anxious to defend the rights of Serbs
throughout the region, and bloody conflicts
ensued. Despite the Dayton Peace
Agreement of 1 995, which divided Bosnia-
Herzegovina into a Serb Republic and a
Muslim/Croat Federation, in 1998 there
were still around 1 .5 million refugees and
displaced persons in the region as a whole
(and a further quarter of a million
elsewhere in Europe). In 1 999 the crisis in
Kosovo led to another massive movement of
people as over 850,000 ethnic Albanian
Kosovans fled from Yugoslavia.
AUSTR 'A-w-r-*f\
f
~~~3 m -~*-»*r \ HUNGARY
> SLOVENIA $f ^V
J ^-CROATIA T**+^%
\ ROMANIA
( \ SERBREPUB
V, BOSNIA-HERZ
•AT,
VVr
FEDERAL REPUBLIC V
OF YUGOSLAVIA /^
\ FEDERATION c" & **
X6r Bosnia- T^ -r— '
HE&EGOVINAJjt °T
'',. ^C^WONTENEQRCr
SERBIA V^ tf
1 jT 1 — S^ t* °
ITALY
1
^£3" KOSOVO\ C >
f ( MACEDONIA**^-
3 F««a Yugoslavia 1 99 1 -99
""■ Boundary d fonrat Yugnsbvio 1??1
\ \_/^
Boundary established by Dayton Peixe ftgreemanl 1 9v&
■y J
Croatia and bayinHiarzegcwmo Nune 1V93};
274 refugees IV. rtaBonb!
^~ ^ moiiy Serb reruoees
— t* mainly Ciggi/ttsn Muslim njhjaees
\&) osclated persons Jin thousands}
GREECE
Kgsavrj (mill -June 1999):
445 mhjQees (m thousands)
•■^ tihaic Uauyi actuates
60? displaced perm (h) thousands)
© THE SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE 1945-89 pages 236-37
UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING
SINCE 1945
The first purpose of the United Nations, enunciated in
the UN Charter, is to maintain international peace
and security, and its founders originally envisaged the
creation of a UN security force dedicated to doing this.
When negotiations between the superpowers - the United
States and Soviet Union - over the creation of such a force
failed, various alternatives were suggested. "Peacekeeping"
emerged as an improvised response to this failure and to
developing international crises, in particular the 1948 crisis
in Palestine. The term is used to describe efforts made by
the United Nations to diffuse civil and regional conflicts.
In 1948 the United Nations Secretary-General, Trygve
Lie, requested that the Security Council authorize the
creation of the first UN ground force to police the truce in
the Middle East: the United Nations Truce Supervision
Organization (map 1). In the period 1948-56 other UN
truce supervision forces were established in areas of dispute,
although it was not until 1956 that a fully fledged peace-
keeping force, the United Nations Emergency Force, was
established by the General Assembly to police and monitor
the ceasefire between Egypt and Israel. This provided the
model for future operations: the creation of an impartial UN
force composed of troops contributed by member countries,
serving under the UN flag, interposed with the consent of
the protagonists, and resorting to arms only in self-defence.
In such operations, members of the peacekeeping force
have acted as intermediaries, with responsibility for helping
the belligerents negotiate a settlement.
1 UN MEMIERSHIP AND
PEACEKE! PING OPERATIONS
^] I wrrfei merfter d UN
kiwi IN
^ 1944-J \^2 1970s
| 1950s 'ISO)
■ 1940s 1990)
DOMINICAN
REPUBLIC
SIERRA LEONE
to r
LIBERIA
27
The wausiNG con « UN peacekeeping
1988
vm
UN budget for peacekeeping S230 mifiion
$3,600 million
JH peacekeeping Fortes 11,121
77,783
Number ol on-going missions 7
17
A UN peacekeeping operations around the
world have included Ihose attempting to
restore at maintain peace between warring
nations, surh us ihe Iron-Iraq Military
Observer Group ol 1 986-! i . and Ihose
intervening io proietl and bring aid la the
civilian population in o state affected by civil
war, such as the Operation in Mozambique
in 1 992-95. The UN budget for
peacekeeping increased dramatically in the
last decode dI the 20lh century, with more
than half Us peacekeeping missions being
initialed during thai lime while other, more
long-term, operations continued
1 UK Truce Supervision Organization (UNT50I (June 1948- I
2 UN Military Observer Graap in India and Pakistan I0NM0GIP) (Jan 1 949- )
3 Firsl UN Emergency Force (IMF I) (Nov 1956- Jura: 1957]
i UN Operation in Ihe Congo (0H0C) (July 1 960- lone 1 964)
5 UN Security Force in West New Guinea [West Irion] (UN5F) (Oct 1 962-Apr 1 963]
6 UH Yemen Observation Mission (0NYOMI duly 1 963-Sepi 1964)
7 UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) ("Mor 1 944- I
8 Mission ol Ihe Representative ol the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic
(OOMREP)(Moyl965-Ocll966)
9 UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission (UNIP0M1 (Sept 1965-Mar 1964]
10 Second ON Emergency Force (UNEF II) [Oct 1973-July 1979)
1 1 UN Disenoooemenl Observer Force (UNOOFI llune 1974- ]
12 UN Inletim Farce in Lebanon (UMIFIl) (Mat 1978- )
1 3 UN Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan i, Pakistan (UNG0MAP) (Apr 1986-Mar 1 990]
14 ON Iron bq Military Observer Group (UIIIIMOG) (Aug 1 938 Feb 1991)
1 5 UN Angola Verification Missions (UNAYEM I, Jon I 9B9 June 1 991 ),
III, June 1991-Feb 1995), till. Fob 1995-lune 1997], (M0N0A] [July 1997-19991
16 ON Transition Assistance Group (0NTAG] (Apt 1989-Mor 1990]
17 ON Observer Group in Central America [UNUUI (Nov 1989-Jan 19921
1 1 ON Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (M1N0RS0) (Sept 1 991- ]
19 ON Advance Mission in Cambodia (0NAMIC) [Oct ,991 l.lur 1992]
20 ON Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONOSAl! (July 1991-Apr 1995)
21 UN Iroq-Kuwnil Observation Missions (UM0M| (Apr 1991- )
22 UN Trarrsilionnl Authority in Cambodia (UN1AC) (Mar 1992— Sept 1993]
23 UN Operations in Somalia (ONOSOM I, Apr 1 992-Apr 1 993),
(ON0SOM II, May 1993-Mor 19951
24 ON Protection Force (UNPR0F0RI (Mar 1992- Dec 19951
25 UN Operation in Mozambique (UftUMQJ) (Dec 1992-Jon 1995)
26 UN Observer Mission in Georgia (0N0MIG) (Aug 1993- ]
27 UN Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) (Sepl 1993-Sept 1997)
28 UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) (Sept 1993-June 1994), (MIFONUH) (Dec 1997- )
29 UN Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda (UNOMUR) (Oct 1 993-Sept 1994)
30 UN Assistance Mission far Rwanda (0NAMIR) (Oct )993-Mar 1996)
31 UN Aouiou Strip Observer Group (ONASOG)IMoy l994-Mor!996]
32 UN Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UKMDT1 (Dec! 994- )
33 UN Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia (UHCR0) (Mar 1995-Jan 19961
34 UN Preventive Deployment Fotce IUNPREDEP) (Mot 1 995-1 999]
35 UN Mission in Bosnin-Uenegomn (OHMIBH) [Dec 1995- )
36 Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonic Boronjo. and Western Sitmium
(UNIAESI (Jan 1996- Jan 1998)
37 UN Mission ol Observers in Prevloko (0NM0P) (Jan 1 996- )
38 UN Human Rights Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINGUA) (Jan-May 1997)
39 ON Mission in the Central African Republic (MINORUI (April 1998- I
40 UN Mission of Observers in Sierra Leone (UN0MSIL) (July 1 998- )
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
Nctliicrfttiictiii Svti
•^*^Z^"
Paphoi
u
Umasiol
2 The division of Cmus 1974
I 1 tmimMfyimHwi*.
♦ Utoino
IDtacW^bvUushiyjnjls
(MMfetaofCnnjtlWaiiCuri
I UNpitnlled W« iwe
(Main tnc oflufah toas
_] Bflttsh miinv bow
A The island of Cyprus, only 100
kilometres (55 miles) south of Turkey but
with 80 per cent of its population Greek-
speaking, has been divided in two since the
invasion of Turkish forces in July 1 974. The
UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus, which
arrived on the island in 1 964 to avert civil
war, polices the "green line" between
opposing Turkish and Greek Cypriot forces.
This buffer zone is 1 80 kilometres (112
miles) long and includes part of the northern
suburbs of Nicosia. In 2004 the Greek
Cypriots rejected a UN plan to reunify the
island because they felt it gave too many
concessions to the Turks.
There are also two British military bases
on the island, under an agreement made
when Cyprus became independent in 1 960.
"Classical" peacekeeping
Following the success of UNEF I, this type of peacekeeping
became a popular UN policy option. Used in cases of
inter-state conflict, it is known as "first" or "classical" peace-
keeping. It attempts to bring about an end to the fighting,
separate the opposing forces and encourage the creation of a
lasting peace. Such operations have usually included the
supply of UN humanitarian assistance to the affected civil-
ian population. From the 1960s to the late 1980s classical
peacekeeping was used in the majority of peacekeeping oper-
ations, including that of the United Nations Force in Cyprus
(map 2), deployed on the island in 1964 in order to separate
warring Turkish and Greek Cypriot communities, and the
United Nations Disengagement Observer Force, sent to
supervise the Syrian Golan Heights in 1974, following the
Arab-Israeli War.
All of the UN's peacekeeping efforts between 1948 and
1990 were, however, constrained by the existence of the
Cold War (pages 244-A5), during which the majority of con-
flicts were affected to some degree by rivalry between the
United States and the Soviet Union, neither of whom
wanted UN involvement if this compromised its own
national interests.
"Second generation" peacekeeping
Since the end of the Cold War new opportunities have
arisen for UN action in dealing with threats to peace, and
this has stimulated an increase in the form of operation
known as "second generation" peacekeeping. This occurs
when the UN becomes involved in intra-state conflicts in
"failed states", where governmental functions are sus-
pended, the infrastructure is destroyed, populations are
displaced and armed conflict rages. In these circumstances
the UN has performed three different peacekeeping roles.
First, it has acted as a neutral force and honest broker
between the warring factions, seeking to encourage the
negotiation and implementation of a peace agreement and
to prepare and conduct national elections as a means of fur-
thering reconciliation and stability. This was the case with
the United Nations Angola Verification Missions from 1989
onwards and the UN mission to Cambodia in 1991-95.
Second, it has interposed itself between warring parties
to ensure the delivery of humanitarian aid to the war-torn
population, as in the case of the United Nations Operations
in Somalia in 1992-95.
Finally, "second generation" peacekeeping has been
used to create a stable environment for the re-establishment
of democracy, as was the purpose of the United Nations
Transition Assistance Group in Namibia in 1989-90 and the
United Nations Mission in Haiti in September 1993.
These "second generation" peacekeeping missions have
become more common since the end of the Cold War, and
have led to an increase both in the number of forces
deployed and in the total expenditure on peacekeeping
(table). In the case of the UN operations in Bosnia (map 3),
Somalia and Rwanda, however, the UN did not have the
consent of the various warring factions. Rather, the UN was
forced by the international community to act in the inter-
ests of the civilian populations. The UN's hasty reaction to
such demands resulted in clouded mandates, which made
the implementation of peacekeeping problematic.
Peacekeeping is inherently risky, and almost 2,000
peacekeepers have lost their lives since 1948. The UN's role
has also at times been compromised by a failure to remain
neutral, as when a large force, sent to the Congo in 1960 by
the Security Council, lost its impartiality, and became
involved in fighting against the Soviet-orientated, democra-
tically elected prime minister, Patrice Lumumba. At other
times failure has resulted from lack of military strength and
restrictions on its freedom of action, such as when the
United Nations Protection Force was unable to enforce the
"Safe Areas" it had created in Bosnia in 1993 (map 3).
UN peacekeeping operations have generally worked well
where the task is fairly limited and clear cut - such as the
patrolling of ceasefire lines in Cyprus - but when the situa-
tion is more complex, as in Rwanda or Bosnia, the UN
peacekeepers have often found themselves out of their
depth. Nevertheless, peacekeeping has, in many cases,
assisted in ending war and in creating the conditions in
which the causes of the war can be addressed through diplo-
macy, and the economic and social reconstruction of a
war-torn country can commence.
SLOVENIA
MONTEN**^
Hxfeonffl 1 -
AlBANtA i
$h* \
3 The UN in Bosnia 1994
■ •MrftoiianlOaAiiaMedlirSstis O
UHS*AfwtftbfcfwlV''W3
9 (wotBcwoiorfflaWtrrftortmCrKin
Bounder*-, rf Smne atd Craatio
^| Areu ccntmfled by Bmwin Muslims
Backii ()[ brief f\j^j\m\
A Kofi Annan, a Ghanaian diplomat, was
elected Secretary-General of the United
Nations in 1 996 - the first black African to
hold the position. Among the international
crises in which he became involved as
peace-maker in the late 1990s were those
arising from events in Bosnia and Iraq.
■4 The UN became involved in Bosnia, a
multi-ethnic constituent republic of
Yugoslavia, in 1992, after the Yugoslav
(predominantly Serbian) army invaded to
prevent the formation of an independent
state. Sarajevo was besieged and the UN
attempted to keep the airport open to allow
supplies to be flown in. In an attempt to
protect the Bosnian Muslim population from
attack by Bosnian Serb forces, six towns
were nominated by the UN as "Safe Areas".
The UN force lacked sufficient military
strength, however, to implement their
policy; with only limited freedom of action it
was forced to withdraw from two of the
areas (Zepa and Srebrnica) in the summer
of 1 995, leaving them to be overrun by
Bosnian Serbs.
© THE COLD WAR 1947-91 pages 244-45
HUMAN RIGHTS
SINCE 1914
T During the second half of die 20th
century democracy was introduced to most
of the countries of Africa, Central America
and, following the collapse of their
communist regimes in 1 989-90, to the
countries of Eastern Europe and Central
Asia. In addition, democratic processes were
reinstated in many South American
countries, which experienced periods of
right-wing dictatorship during the 1970s
and early 1980s. However, in many
countries democracy is only tenuously
established, and human rights abuses
continue; in Africa some of the newly
democratic countries have slipped back to
being one-parly states, and in others there
has been clear evidence of rigged elections.
The majority of the world's countries now
support the International Covenant on Civil
and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by the
UN in 1 966, which sets out a range of
rights, including freedom of conscience,
freedom from torture and slavery, and the
right to demonstrate peaceably.
In 1998 the United Nations celebrated the 50th anniver-
sary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the
preamble of which asserts that the "recognition of the
inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of
all members of the human family is the foundation of
freedom, justice and peace in the world." The Declaration,
according to the General Assembly of the United Nations,
was to be a "common standard of achievement for all
peoples and all nations", and during the second half of the
20th century efforts were made to define, articulate and
enforce the fundamental rights of all peoples of all nations.
Definition of human rights
The United Nations, chartered in 1945, was not the first
body to recognize and assert basic human rights. The first
ten amendments to the US Constitution, the Bill of Rights
(ratified in 1791), outline what early Americans believed to
be their inalienable rights. The League of Nations, the inter-
national organization established as a result of the Treaty of
Versailles (1919), drew up conventions on slavery and
forced labour. Yet the United Nations was the most powerful
force within the field of human rights in the 20th century,
and the breadth of conventions created in the first 50 years
of its existence surpassed those of any prior body. They
cover areas such as employment, the rights of children,
refugees, development, war crimes and the eradication of
hunger and malnutrition. The earliest conventions were
generally concerned with civil and political rights, while
more recently the UN has turned its attention to the rights
of people to economic and social development and to peace
and security.
Elective democracy
In the first half of the 20th century most democratic gov-
ernments (those resulting from multiparty elections) were
to be found in countries in Europe and in North and South
America (map 1), although in some of these countries sec-
tions of society were still barred from voting for reasons of
ethnic origin, gender or income. After the Second World
War, and in particular in the last two decades of the 20th
century, elective democracy spread to the great majority of
countries in the world, although the fifth of the world's pop-
ulation who live in the People's Republic of China were still
not able to exercise full democratic rights.
It remains to be seen how the spread of democracy will
affect human rights. Governments that can be voted out by
their electorate are less likely to abuse their citizens (as
demonstrated by the contrast between the democratic
society of Chile in the 1990s, and the society under the mil-
itary dictatorship of Pinochet in the preceding two decades).
In countries where political opposition is not tolerated,
however, governments often go to great lengths to ensure
that political rivals are silenced, and human rights abuses,
including a ban on the freedom of speech, imprisonment
without a fair trial, torture and execution, are common.
Religious conflict
The right to practise the religion of one's choice is enshrined
in a UN Declaration of 1981, yet persecution on religious
grounds is still prevalent throughout the world (map 2).
Discrimination on the basis of religion often occurs when a
religious group is seen as a threat to the status quo because
of demands for autonomy, although it is difficult to distin-
guish it from discrimination on ethnic or political grounds.
An example of an area riven by sectarian conflict is
Ireland (map 3), where British rule and domination by
Protestants was resisted by Catholic Nationalists for cen-
turies. A guerrilla war, fought by the Irish Republican Army
(IRA) against British forces from 1918, came to a temporary
end in 1921 with the Anglo-Irish Treaty, under which the
British agreed to a large area of Ireland (in which Catholics
predominated) becoming an independent state (initially
within the Commonwealth). Six of the nine northern coun-
ties of Ulster remained part of the United Kingdom, albeit
with their own parliament. Although Protestants predomi-
nated in much of the north, there was still a sizeable
Catholic minority, which found itself under-represented in
the political system, and in the allocation of public housing
and of public investment.
These factors led to the development of a Catholic civil
rights movement in Northern Ireland in the late 1960s and
to clashes between Protestant and Catholic paramilitary
groups and civilians, as a result of which the British army
was deployed in the province. The introduction of intern-
ment (imprisonment without trial) in 1971 was seen by
many Catholics as a transgression of their civil and politi-
cal rights and an escalation of political violence ensued. On
30 January 1972 the British army killed 13 Catholics in
ATLAS OF WOIID HI1TQRY: Ht\ S
GolhQnCl v rTfll w toftft Ktaj-; j
Go* 1 91 9-21
Scrtxxj OiVvxAm Owiiriaft
ChniW v f*mk3r&?- 9jJ '
~ &«4,„1wti
HMO £ Won. »%*o I 967-7Q
HilxoCM I9B0-B1, I9SJ i
2 RlUGfOK AMD [THNK COWIKTS
1917-M
N^ttTwat/,miim»iiii| retooi.
Moot odapKd or suwtle «ofr
H ItmtnMoai
j (fcttc-s
A tmabfalosn
^} Onto ore) (*• tow Owrtes
^ Mum
*
■ Uwu
I Won
■ Judaism
■ Saabta
[3 Sfirtrw
(artrta ncissotre fartr cra/totd a.
S State
Fj^B locdfeiflWr
**i ! ^oojsarannB
. 5j».-.'
*» «tmU«BKE
1 Ut>«nnnwn 1914
aXi**vCW«>wl»33
SMullmvHnin )W7-«. 1992
4 Ihi . Muslim I9M
SMuJimivSMioltran 1978-3?
6 5}imJo Mmkrm v Swvii MuJum
yMmrUm 19SJ-90
7 Vtiih gw> v Knii 1 9M -
• Iraqi govt *Kunb1«$t, 1991-92
9 Sjron So- 1 * Hwfcin 1 962
10S.U.ivt*4o«gwl982
11 Muslims vln^on pout 1990
12 CIvriAon Amwiiwt v hV/itim
AaAoi(onil 1990-95
1 3 SK.,% Muitm y Ircqi gov! 199}
14 Camm.* •Minimi I993-9J
1 5 Mmlm bowol Cghmg ! 991 -
1 6 Hindui v C h.r i sson i 1 998
what became known ;is "Moody Sunday", in March 1972
tlii.' Northern Ireland parliament was dissolved and direct
rule imposed from London. The subsequent 25 years,
during which over 2.750 civilians, soldiers and KIT. officers
lost their lives, saw several peace proposals and peace move-
ments gain support and then launder. On Oood Friday 1998
an agreement was brokered between political representa-
tives of the two sides, which established a Northern Ireland
Assembly with Ixith Catholic and Protestant representation.
However, the new assembly and accompanying executive
were subsequently suspended amid fun tier disagreement
between Protestant and Catholic leaders.
Human kicuts ami rekigkrs
Between 1970 and 1995 the world's refugee population
increased by over 900 per cent to 27 million people. This
was partly due to wars (moj) J), but also due to people
seeking refuge from poverty, persecution ami economic and
environmental disasters. Hcfugccs often end up in the
poorest countries, which lack money to support their own
citizens, let alone refugees. These displaced populations are
a growing concern to the international community.
With so many nations still struggling to develop eco-
nomically and politically, the provision of basic human
rights on a world scale seems an immense task. A strong
international legal foundation has been laid for the respect
of human rights. However, the reluctance of the interna-
tional community to use economic and military sanctions
against governments chat abuse human rights - and the
ineffectual nature of these sanctions - means that world-
wide transgressions of human rights .ire likely to continue.
A Retpafl and ethnk differences Save
led to intense ronffid in many regions of
the world, although issues such os
inequality of satial status, income and land
3 Tint txtvisKM of Ireland 1922
Ctfvofcs os twwmge r> pcwteicn
■ TWO*, 3 irt»5«\
distribution ore frequently strong
lomnbuiing lectors Demonds for
autonomy by minority groups, including the
Bosnian Mr/slims and Kosovon Albanians in
_KAstr*f
4J*
Vfc *" Wb
former Yugoslavia, and the Kercb in Iroq
and Turkey, hove resulted in attempts by
the governments concerned to suppress
entire peoples and eradicate then cultures.
-« In 19??, Mowng centuries of rttgiout
conBcl, Ireland ws drridtd in hn. Crndote
r/eootninoted in trie Irish hee State, one
also formed the majority in lots* rural
area of fteMSttl-sTXitreM Northern
Ireland, which veto indwW in the province
in order to provide it urtti sufficient
ogricuftuiol land.
THE POSITION OF WOMEN
SINCE 1914
T While women in Hew Zealand were
fully -:nii :;n: Iih-iI OS :::» 1, OS 1 393,
elsewhere in Ihe world, with the exception
of n few US slates (mop 4), women hod lo
wait uniil well into ihe 20th <enkrry before
■hey could vote. In several European
countries, including France end Switzerland,
women were not given the right to vote until
after the Second World Wot.
Iii 189.1 New Zealand became the first country to gram
universal suffrage to women. Today few women any-
where in the world fire excluded from political
participation, and most women are able not only to vote in
national and local elections, but to nm for office as well
lump 1 >. In some countries, such ;is the United States and
most Western European nations, the female franchise was
preceded by long lights for political equality; iti other coun-
tries women were granted the right to vote partly in
recognition of the contribution they made towards the
struggle for independence from colonial rule.
Improving women's lives has become an international
concern in the 20th century. Women's lives differ from men's
in every area, including education, health and employment,
in ways that have not always been readily apparent. Gender
inequality means different things in different cultures, but
the use of gender as a category of analysis in measuring the
quality of people's lives has greatly changed perceptions of
the social interactions of women and men.
The linitrh Nations Decade fob Women
The first United Nations Decade for Women took place
between l')7f> and 1986. During this period the l!N began
to compile statistics on women for regional and interna-
tional comparison, in relation to such areas as maternity
N^viifcjjtEjfi wjftien <mr ipcciiied age and
incefm mfrarKhimd tVW-WLfrffliehiia 1913
ot former USSS
'"BjlWJniJ^cin in J9r7buT
HvtabJo ksexerxae
fete
Si. unhVIWOi
I Women and the right to von
Women first Bnfronthtsat:
H pns-19H □ 1921-45
Zl wi-
■ if 14-29 i ■<■-';
1 nosuifrage
Aufhuiian Aboriginal
KHOmcn not givnn ruff
voting rt'nriri until 1 967
and reproduction, leadership and decision making, family
life, economics, education and health. These statistics have
served as a foetus for discussions, and have helped to identify
areas needing attention and Improvement.
The increased desire in the 20th century to recognize
the Importance of women's daily lives has also led to greater
scrutiny of the employment of women and the ways in
which work is measured. International statistics on employ-
ment, for example, indicate the extent to which women are
participating in paid employment (map 2), and the type of
job in which they are employed. However, the 1905 United
Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Ueijiug
stressed the importance of valuing unpaid labour. In the
industrialized world work is often valued by the remunera-
tion attached to it. Volunteer, domestic and child real ing
work (unpaid labour that is most often performed by
women) has been devalued and, in terms of statistics, gone
unreported. Activities such as subsistence production and
housework, in which a large proportion of women in devel-
oping countries are involved, are now being measured more
effectively, although progress remains to be made.
Statistical information on women's lives has revealed
not only that governments have invested less in females
than in males, but that women provide more care to chil-
dren and older people, have different access to education
and employment from that of men. and usually work longer
hours in and out of their homes throughout their lifetime
than men. In short, women often experience a poorer
quality of life than their male counterparts.
Although overall there has been a global trend towards
improvement in the provision of secondary education for
girls (map .1), this disguises the fact that within individual
countries attendance at school may be affected by war or
by economic difficulties. Furthermore, when assessing
improvements in women's lives it is necessary to look at
more than one variable. Even in countries that awarded
women the vote relatively early (such as Turkey and Japan).
women may still be represented in fewer than 10 per cent of
administrative and managerial jobs, whereas in countries
that granted women the vote relatively late (such as
Switzerland, Honduras and Botswana) more than Ml per
cent of women are in such employment,
fine indication of women's status in society is the
number who are political representatives, specifically those
holding ministerial-level appointments. There have often
been long periods between a country's enfranchisement of
women and the election of the first woman to the national
parliament. At the end of the 2<lth century there was still
little female representation worldwide. Keen in a country
such as the United States, where over 5(1 per cent of women
▼ In Africa, ports ol Asin and South
America women aie largely responsible foi
Ihe agricultural work done in theit
community. Itiey rial only provide their
lamilies with (ood, hut frequently produce
cash crops for sale in locol markets.
> Women make up a very small
percentage of the workforce in some
Muslim countries, such os Saudi Arabia.
However, in several countries of Asia and
southern Africa more women than men ore
in pnid employment
Moeececy
2 Women in employment 1990s
O tim' ii |>:nr i i;ili:yinfli I ::\ ■■ iIh i,i!;il ,vi.-h>''i:
■ n»5lft □ lO-SPi □ HMOS £3 25- W,
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
ALASKA
4 Women elected to the US Congress
■J hi lende HiRMAHfncnt bdofc poswq a 1 Tit Aiitauwil'
A FaidtllqMurWM
■ TOMS
9 Pwrol tannic «ribndii»tncm Mote posing o! 1 9rti Amendment
Tetiod it wlidi BPih Ssimtar «
3 "S3""
^H f« lamale anfratctiisemenr by the time ol me 1 f Ih AmenoVtienl
EepwsenlntiH wm injfaly elected;
| 1W-IS
O FmfcSnoM
§■ WI9-S7
_ 1985-98
>^>£.\>'nl> t>
*e>*
were employed in administrative and managerial posts, rel-
atively few women had been elected to Congress (map 4).
In order to understand change in women's lives it is nec-
essary to appreciate how different aspects of women's lives
are interwoven: how a girl's physical and mental develop-
ment will affect the woman she will become; how a woman's
status in relation to that of a man changes throughout the
different phases of her life; and the difficulty in disentangling
the inter-relationship between education, employment, fer-
tility and contraception. For example, in many instances
there is a clear correlation between a high female literacy
rate and low birth rate (bar chart). There seems to be a two-
way effect whereby education gives women the information
and confidence to make family-planning decisions, and
access to contraception gives young women the opportunity
to fulfil their educational potential before starting a family.
T The percentage of girls receiving
secondary education is a useful measure of
a country's attitude to its female citizens,
and the role they are expected to play in
society. In many countries, although girls
might receive a primary education, they are
then expected to leave school and work in
the home or the fields. Some cultures still
consider secondary education for girls a
largely wasted investment.
Non-governmental organizations
Many of the changes brought about in women's lives have
come not from governments but from grassroots activists.
Although women may be poorly represented worldwide in
the traditional spheres of national politics, women have
found that they can bring about change through participa-
tion in professional groups, trade unions, locally elected
bodies and a growing number of non-governmental organi-
zations (NGOs), of which there are estimated to be 30,000
worldwide. Such groups have allowed women's concerns to
be voiced and supported on local, national and international
levels, enabling them to build the skills necessary to exert
political pressure and to collect the statistical information
required to persuade governments to act.
Although disparities between the lives of men and
women still exist, and progress remains to be made in the
way in which men and women live and work together, the
past century has witnessed vast changes in the way some
men and women perceive women's roles. Women's rights
have become human rights and the work of women has
begun to be recognized as having no less an impact on
society and the economy than that of men.
▲ The first women in the world to be given
the vote were those in Wyoming in 1 869,
but female enfranchisement was only
granted in all US states in 1 920, after the
passing of the 19th Amendment. Although
the US Constitution did not actually prohibit
women from standing for office, the first
female Representative was not elected until
1 91 7. The majority of Congresswomen have
come from the eastern states and the west
coast, although in 1998 Vermont, New
Hampshire and Delaware were among those
which had still never elected a woman.
T There is a strong correlation between the
percentage of a country's women who are
literate and its fertility rate. Women in
industrialized nations, where literacy rates
are much higher, have smaller families than
those in non-industrialized nations, where
educational provision is often fairly limited
and that for girls is particularly poor.
3 Girls in secondary education 1 998
■ wtfcfSOs ■ 50-60=., □ m-'C" □ ro-
ll m-m [ J wsWi LZI faoiwiwuee
The relatwhw ietwien literacy and fertility
■■ Ftriirr iota 1 990—95 leverage wtneei of chiton bom pet women)
l__l StBBIel<nK^lW5ios|wmto^dm»ll8trale|»p)bimiivBn^iit 141
pp = r*»
an. S.? 2 ?" a-f i_i
Ir
THE WORLD ECONOMY
SINCE 1945
> The comporotive wealth of ihe mojw
economies of Ihe world thonged during the
second half of the 20th century. Although
ihe United Slots maintained it! position ris
the woddi wealthiest notion, countries such
as Argentina, Uruguay and Mauritius whose
wealth wos largely based an the export of
raw materials, had slipped outol the "top
20" hy 1970. The oilptodutiag countries of
Saudi Arabia and Venezuela both featured
in 1970, but were overtaken in 1 990 by the
newly industrialized countries of Western
Europe nnd East Asia.
T Ihe oil crisis ol 1 973-74 arose largely
as a result of ihe Arab-Israeli War. Ihe
Qrganizottoa of Petroleum Exporting
Countries [QPttl conliols the majority of
the world's oil exports and in 1 973 its Arab
members persuaded the organization la
place on embargo on Ihe supply of oil to
"base nniions that supported Israel. The
subsequent shortage al oil la the
induslriulized world severely disrupted
production and ail prices soared.
HONGKONG
1
,/•
MAURITIUS.-
I
I Thi richest jo countries 1 950/1970/1990
[ornparalfve funking [recording la GDP per rnpiiu ft
■M wo ^B wo ■■ mo
NEW ZEALAND
I
The Second World War left the economies of continen-
tal Europe, the Soviet Union and Japan ravaged, with
manufacturing and agricultural output severely dis-
rupted. The US economy remained .strong, however, and its
strength became a mainspring ol* recovery in Europe, The
European Recovery Programme (or "Marshall Plan"! pro-
vided US investment tor Western European economies t'rnm
1948 to 1951 - effectively speeding up the process of eco-
nomic recovery. In giving aid to (iermany and Austria, as
well as to the victorious Allied nations, it also engendered a
more positive spirit than the one which emerged from the
punitive Versailles agreement of 1919 (pages 220-21).
Co-operation between Europe and the United States
aided recovery to the extent that by 1951 all Western
European economies had at least recovered to their highest
pre-war level of output (jxtges 238-39) and were entering a
"golden age" of growth that was to last until the first oil
crisis in 1973. Japan also received US financial support, and
found its economy boosted by demand for supplies to
WlSIGfttMANY
1*
FRANCEpWO
-j "~ tTAL'f*'
2 The oil crisis 1973-74
tins' eifontft ol cJ 1173 (i itiifcn twins!
F~l 10 -WO Hi 30O-3M
7} 130-300 ■ 300- 400
Molar importers el ail 1 933 (in million tonnes).
1 [ (HO ■! 150-300
[ I W-IW «AN Member of 0PKHr3
NEW
ZEALAND
support the UN troops in the Korean War ( 1950-53) (pages
252-S3). New institutions, sueh as the International
Monetary Fund (for the financial system), the World Hank
(for developing countries) and the General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (for the trading system), were designed by
the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference at
Bretton Woods in 1944 in order to support the recovery.
In the decades following the Second World War the
world economic situation changed markedly, svith countries
that were wealthy in pre-war times being overtaken by
newly enriched nations (map J). The United States was,
and has remained, the Wealthiest economy in the world, and
for the early part of the |x*st-war period it was also the major
source of technological change; large US companies took
their innovations abroad and invested in new plants in less
advanced economies. In 1 975 the total value of such multi-
nationals' overseas stock was 4.5 per cent of world output,
rising to 9.5 per cent by l'W4. About a quarter of the stock
is leseated outside the major industrialized nations, spread-
ing new technologies to newly industrializing countries.
THE GOLDEN ACE OF GROWTH 1950-73
Between 1950 and 197*1 Cross Domestic Product (GDP) per
capita grew on average by 4 per cent a year in Western
Europe as a whole. This growth was based on high levels of
▼ During the 1 970s OPEC engineered two
substantial increases in ihe price of oil
largely through tbe tactic of restricting
supply. The price ol oil subsequently dropped
ugom Irom the mid-1 °BOs onwards as
member notions ignored OPK's limitations
on exports. Fears ate growing ol a world-
wide shortage al oil in ibe 2 1st century.
Index of oh prices (adjusted for inflation)
3j s -h*
t — i — i — i — i — i — r
s ^ ^ 3? ^ 5 §
ai o hi a d- m Q
ATUS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
productive investment, the import of US technologies, and
improvements in the quality of the workforce through edu-
cation and training. In France, for example, there was a
two-year rise in the average length of time spent in primary
and secondary education (to 11.7 years), while in West
Germany there was a rise of more than one year (to 11.6
years). The increasing integration of the European
economies through the "Common Market" (EEC) also stim-
ulated growth (pages 238-39). By 1970 the 20 countries
with the highest GDP per capita were mainly to be found in
Europe, and the world's wealth was concentrated largely in
the North Atlantic.
Developments in East Asia, however, were just as
remarkable, with Japan entering the "top 20" economies for
the first time in 1970. Japan's output had grown by more
than 9 per cent a year since 1950, driven by high invest-
ment and the rapid adoption and adaptation of US
technology. The skills of the workforce had also improved
rapidly, with the average length of time spent in primary
and secondary education rising from 9 to 12 years.
The slowing of growth rates since 1973
The golden age had been supported by low oil prices and
cheap commodities, with the advanced economies becom-
ing increasingly dependent on imported fuels as their
incomes rose (map 2). The extent to which this made them
vulnerable became all too apparent in 1973 when the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) - a
cartel whose Arab members were the most powerful -
placed an embargo on oil exports to the nations that sup-
ported Israel in the Arab-Israeli War. Oil suddenly became
scarce and prices rose sharply (graph), causing major dis-
ruption in the United States and Europe.
A major slowdown in activity followed, and it took the
advanced economies time to recover. They were just doing
so when oil prices rose again in 1979. The richer European
countries had largely caught up with the United States by
this time, with the result that their growth was beginning to
slow from 4 per cent per annum to a figure closer to the US
level, which had dropped from 2.4 to 1.7 per cent following
the 1973 oil crisis. With a post-1979 growth rate of only 1.7
per cent in Western Europe, unemployment rose sharply. In
Japan growth remained high at 3 per cent, although this was
well below the level of 8 per cent during the golden age.
Openness and growth in the modern world
Countries adopted different growth strategies after 1950.
Those in Latin America, many in Africa and some in Asia
- such as India - opted for a more self-sufficient approach,
substituting home-produced goods for imports. The
Europeans and many countries in Southeast and East Asia,
on the other hand, opted for a strategy centred on openness
to trade - importing and exporting a large share of their
GDP (map 3). The open strategy made it necessary for
these countries to react to external demands, and to adjust
their methods of production accordingly. As the world
moved, especially after 1970, beyond simple mass produc-
tion towards the specialized production of high-technology
products, the countries that had adopted the strategy of
openness became increasingly successful.
Lessons have been learnt, and trading arrangements that
remove barriers between member nations are becoming
more common. The European Union, one of the oldest
trading blocs (pages 238-39), expanded in 2004 to include
ten eastern European states. Its barriers to external trade
stimulate inward investment by countries such as Japan.
More recently formed regional trading blocs include the
North American Free Trade Area (pages 242-43) and
Mercosur (comprising Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and
Uruguay). The East Asians have set up an outward-looking
bloc in APEC (pages 242-43), in an attempt to stimulate
trade. However, as they learnt in the economic crisis of
1997-98, openness may aid growth, but it can leave their
economies vulnerable to the vagaries of the world market.
-4 India is one of many Asian countries that
have made huge economic and technological
advances since 1 945. However, a large
proportion of its population continues to
live without what are regarded as basic
amenities - such as running water - in the
industrialized world.
▼ A country's openness to trade is
calculated by adding together the value of
exports and imports (trade), and dividing
the total by its Gross Domestic Product. In
countries such as Argentina (with the lowest
"openness" score) trade represents less than
1 1 per cent of its GDf! while others, of which
Singapore is the prime example, import
manufactured parts, assemble them into
products, and export the finished goods. This
has the effect of producing a ratio of trade
to GDP of over 100 per cent.
In general the economies of those
countries that have been open to trade
(especially the smaller nations) have
expanded most rapidly, as seen in the
contrast between the low growth rates in
some countries of South America and Africa,
and the high growth rates in Southeast Asia.
The western European economies have also
grown rapidly because trade barriers have
fallen within the region, with much of
Europe becoming one large market.
3 OffHHBSTO TSADt 1 980
Ratio oi vG»ue at Irodo (exports plus Alports! 1
m tomsfc output'
3 0-JIM ■! oH-HK.
^3 HMO* ■■ ffl-IKK
■ w-tm ■»!».
_ J tfato fipt ovoflflHe
Annuo) owoge growth role fur setoied counties'
r npntnti K) ■ 19(0-60
I lvSO-TO 1 I9SD-V0
* Most nv&tgrmqiamm 1980-90
© THE GREAT DEPRESSION 1929-33 pages 228-29
CHANGES IN POPULATION
SINCE 1945
■»■ Papulation growth is unevenly spread
□ round the globe, wilh many of the more
established industrial nations experiencing
increases Maw 50 per lent since 1 950.
Hie populations ol many al the newly
industrialized notions, on the other hand,
have increased by over 1 SO pec cent in
ihc some period. The Gulf state; in Ihe
Middle East have seen the largest
increases, mainly because ol ihe economic
Expansion arising from their oil revenues.
Global population
in, millions)
1 Population waiusi 1950-97
raxmytthnrAputorofliHnsedby
^| 0-50\
■ mo- im
D 50-irm
g ™-3«ft
U iM-1 arc
■ m«r»
.,, 'I
A The increase in global population has
occeleroted rapidly since 1 950, although it
is projected to slow down somewhat in the
second decade af the 21st century. Over half
of the world's population now lives in South,
East and Southeast Asia.
A Dacca, the capital d! Bangladesh,
increased in size from 17 million people in
the early 1 98th to over six million by Ihe
end of the 1990s
1971 2D0O
The human population has mini.' than doubled since;
1940, with tiiu total at the end of the 20th century
standing at around six billion (graph). Despite indica-
tions that the rate of growth is slowing slightly, projections
put the total population for the year 2(125 as high as X billion.
The majority of the growth since the mid-20th century has
been in developing countries imap J ). with the increase in
these regions contributing over 75 per cent of the world total
growth in the 1950s, and over 90 per cent in the 1990s.
2 Urbanization of rat world
- Gly with at least 1 million inhabitants
THE WORLD'S UWGES1 CITIES
I by millions ol inhabitants)
19(0
,' i 990j
► In the 1950s there were fewer than ten
cities with live million or more inhabitants,
but by the mid, 1 990s there wece over 30
cities of this size. Hie ten largest cities in the
1990s all had aver ten million inhabitants
and the majority were ro be found in the
newly industrializing world.
I
[i!
| I
_■ i-" o r - «** ^^ ^ H
-- us iz^ *- p. H id H
iflflrM$5!
POITIATIOIS GROWTH
The population explosion ol* the 20th century is not only the
result of more babies being horn, but also of better health
care, nutrition, education and sanitary conditions, all of
which have led to increased life expectancy. These condi-
tions have aided population growth even in the face of
disasters such as famines and epidemics. However, high
population growth rates can also put greater pressure on
public services and lead to a fall in living standards, poor
nutrition, inadequate education and high unemployment.
The negative aspects of high population growth are com-
pounded in developing regions (where over 75 per cent of
the world's population lives) because of the greater inci-
dence of poverty and economic instability. Most countries
do not have the resources to support such large populations
and the number of people without access to food, sanitation,
■4 ▼ lit bonizotion "n one of the most only a handful of r ilies with populations of
extreme changes to have affected the world over a milian. By 2000 such settlements
in the 20lh century. In 1 900 there were were scattered iiherally around Ihe globe.
1 \ '1
1950
■
I
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
safe water and health services increases as the population
grows. Furthermore, the inability of a country to provide for
its citizens' basic needs affects its chances of maintaining
or achieving economic and social growth. Balancing the
growth of the population with the Earth's resources and
society's ability to provide these basic necessities is crucial
for a healthy population and continued development.
With a growth rate of 0.5 per cent per annum, the
human population is set to double in 139 years; a growth
rate of 1 per cent reduces that time to 69 years, 2 per cent
to 35 years and 3 per cent to 23 years. Thus, what may
appear as low rates of growth per annum can actually result
in significant increases in population over a few generations.
Recognition of the adverse effects of our burgeoning
population assisted in reducing growth rates in the 1980s
and 1990s. This was achieved through a combination of
improved education and the wider availability of contra-
ceptives. However, while growth rates in developing regions
have decreased, many will remain as high as 3 per cent or
more in the 21st century. European countries currently
reflect the lowest rates of growth (mostly below 1 per cent),
with some countries - such as Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania,
Latvia and Estonia - actually experiencing negative growth
rates, leading to population decline. When coupled with the
migration of people into cities, population decreases affect
rural communities most severely.
Urbanization and migration
Population growth in the developing world has been accom-
panied by an increasing number of people living in the cities
of these regions, making urbanization a global phenomenon
(map 2). Before the 20th century comparatively few people
lived in cities, and the urbanization that occurred was
largely the result of industrialization. Urbanization is now
also a result of migration into the cities of people from agri-
cultural areas unable to support them financially.
In the 1960s most of the world's largest cities were in
industrialized countries, whereas now the majority are to
be found in Central and South America, Asia and Southeast
Asia (bar chart). This rapid urbanization of the world has
resulted, among other things, in increasing levels of urban
air pollution and waste, rapid growth in slum settlements,
homelessness, insanitary water supplies and vast changes
in the landscape (pages 280-81).
Populations have not only moved from rural environ-
ments to cities within their own country. During the 20th
century substantial migrations took place (for economic and
political reasons) across national boundaries (map 3). In
many cases these migrations have resulted in significant
minority cultures developing in the host nation. Many coun-
tries in the developed world now have multicultural
populations, and people with racially mixed backgrounds
are becoming more common.
Demographic ageing
The populations of many developed countries are getting
older as a result of falling birth rates accompanied by
improved health and healthcare, and the same process is
predicted to occur in developing countries, assuming
current improvements in life expectancy. At the beginning
of the 21st century the number of people aged over 65
stands at around 390 million, but is projected to rise to 800
million by 2025, representing 10 per cent of the predicted
population. Latin American and Asian countries are likely to
experience increases of 300 per cent by 2025 in the number
of people over 65 years old.
This demographic shift towards societies in which older
people predominate can be a positive reflection of a
country's health and prosperity, but it also signals the need
for changes in the structure of the labour force, and for a
shift away from a youth-centered culture towards one in
which better health and social services are a priority.
Growing and demographically changing populations have
many implications for societies around the world in terms of
standards of living, trends in health and ill-health, and the
quality of the environment.
T The world's population has always been
migratory to a certain extent, but the 20th
century saw increased movement. This was
partly as a result of economic factors but
also as a result of political pressure and
war. European Jews, an increasing number
of whom migrated to Israel after the First
World War, were forced by German Nazism
to seek asylum elsewhere in Europe and in
the United States in the 1 930s. Most of
those who did not escape were transported
to death camps in eastern Europe. Stalinist
policies in the Soviet Union also resulted in
millions of people being forced into Siberian
labour camps. Since the Second World War,
major migrations have taken place in Asia
and Africa as a result of war, and economic
migrants from developing countries have
sought work in the economies of North
America, Europe and the Gulf states.
!'...,<■.,
3 Human migration 1 91S-98
fmqnbwn pecpla us perreniugu &F Toral population 1 rarest [walkible yffl>J :
| mere rtion 15\ ^| less Itiai I.S^ Valunrnry migrmion:
InwkjrmrY migratiai.
■ 30-7v ~~| dottralaMUile -* I91B-4S
-*> 19l8-«
H 1.5-3.0% -*■ 1V44-Y6
-*• 1W-9B
© WORLD POPULATION GROWTH AND URBANIZATION 1800-1914 pages 210-1 1
PATTERNS OF HEALTH AND ILL-HEALTH
SINCE 1945
A Child immunimlion programmes have
been a major contributing factor in the
my Ithridt increase in lift Bpeftamy.
T Spending on hBoWi tare as n proportion
of i Dunlry i Giass Mrtlianul Producr
lordly increased doing the second hull of
the 20lh century. However, in some
countries - among them the United Stales
- this was largely due to private health
schemes rothec than government spending
A worldwide increase in life expectancy during the 2l)th
century suggested that the human population was the
healthiest it had ever been, and increased health
spending also gave cause for optimism (mups 1 turd 2).
However, at the end of the 20th century millions of people
continued to live in poverty and had no access to adequate
food, safe water or health services. New infectious diseases,
such as AIDS and Hepatitis C, had spread across the world,
while epidemics of older infections, such as cholera and
yellow fever, had also broken out. Treatment of bacterial
infections - after making huge advances with the introduc-
tion of penicillin in the 1940s - had been complicated by
the evolution of drug-resistant bacteria. Health services are
now widely recognized as crucial to economic development,
hut they are often the first to he axed by governments in the
face of economic instability.
hlPICUVKMEJVrS IN HEALTH
Better nutrition, improved access to health care and greater
understanding of disease control have allowed people to live
longer, healthier lives Since the 1950s life expectancy has
increased by over 5(1 per cent in developing regions and by
1 2 per cent and higher in industrial countries, to approxi-
mately f»3 and 74 years respectively. Global immunization
programmes have reduced the occurrence of diseases such
as tuberculosis (TB) and measles, and have helped to
contain the spread of many controllable diseases. Although
the percentage of infants immunized against TB and
measles in l'W4 was as low as 20 per cent in some African
countries, estimates for developing regions as a whole
include rates of 70-90 per cent. These health measures have
contributed substantially to a fall in infant and child mor-
tality rates (map 3), and new and better vaccines are
continually being developed.
1 tmNDtlllRE ON HEdttH AV PERCENTAGE OF GNP 1960-65
huujtomdeKpgntTiniiTfiaMapHUTilaQta'ljNF'
[ iO-2S IZZM-*" 11 ^B *-f» I I Am nnl avmlrtlii
2 EXHIMXTUM ON HEALTH AS PEHCENTA6E OF GNP 1 990-95
towage miuol waemfitura on JietHiti (is percentage of GNP
l~~ Q-& H *-<& !■ "-'OS | | dalu iidI imnnHkii
| l-«k j | 6-6S || miner.
2 Number of people infected with
HIV 1996 (per 100,000)
i
Wnnwn. I.- ii' i n ■ i
I f i" 5. *
< While the indkotions ore that in the
rehislriolied work) tfie HIV infection rote is
beginning; to slobite at decline, HIV/AIDS
h taking an increasing hold in many
iountiHri of Southeast Asia and m Africa
south of the Sahara. Attempts la tutb the
spread ol the disease are often hampered hy
insuffidenl medical facilities, although a
degree of success has been cxhieved by
health education projects that put across the
safe-sex it
1 Causes ot math 1993
(by percentage)
I rjcwklEHnq CBWrff
•• It Ii .* ill •• ll
§■£
A the marked diHtrtixes in lifestyle and
diet between the developed and developing
world are reflected in the major causes of
death. Disuses af the circdotory system
| §f f ff
and cancers, caused partly hy high-fol
diets, account foe nearly 70 per cent of aH
deaths in the developed world, as against
20 pet cent in the developing wild
Causes <>k dx-health
Improved health for some has been accompanied by greater
ill-health for others, and a major cause of this lias been
poverty, which at the end of the 20th century affected over
one billion children and adults throughout the world. Lack
of funds for basic needs naturally leads to undernourish-
ment and higher susceptibility to disease. Some of the most
extreme poverty is to be found in the growing number of
Urban centres (pages 274-75), where public health systems
cannot keep tip with the demands placed on them by
growing populations.
lloth poverty and wealth can lead to ill-health. The high
death rates from cancels, and heart and circulator)" diseases
in developed countries {bar chart 1) ate partly due to
greater life expectancy, but they are also undoubtedly
related to unhealthy lifestyles While wealthier, industrial-
ized countries often have better education, more advanced
medical technology, access to better health care and the
higher incomes to pay for it, their populations as a whole
also tend to have unhealthy diets, indulge in excessive
drinking and smoking, and suffer from lack of exercise. The
populations of industrial countries, and of large cities
throughout the world, are also plagued by pollution, in par-
ticular air pollution, which is thought to be causing an
alarming rise in respiratory problems such as asthma.
In developing countries, hy contrast, infectious and
parasitic diseases account for the majority of deaths. AIDS
is one example of a modern plague. Since the 10K0s health
professionals have watched the disease spread worldwide,
into all sectors of society, but in particular to the poorest,
and estimates suggest that in the late 1'1'JOs over 33 million
people were infected with the 1 1 IV virus [hat is believed to
lead to AIDS, of whom 95 per cent lived in the developing
world (bar chart 2). Water-borne diseases (such as cholera,
typhoid, diarrhoea and guinea worm disease) are also
common. In the 1990s the World Health Organization
( Wl K )) estimated that 78 per cent of people living in devel-
oping countries still had no access to safe water. Despite
world food surpluses, death from malnutrition, often caused
by drought, remains a problem in many regions {mup 4).
Shortage of water is projected to become an increasing
problem in the 21st century, with populations growing in
areas where there is little available. Advances in agricultural
science and practice are being made in order to make the
best use of limited resources, but international conflicts
threaten to break out over use of river water.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
y
3 INMHT MORTALITY RATES 1990-
-95
fcmgi nunc* of bdm dying «ch yea befcxe iwding fa otc of w. pv 1 .000 Mte
M nwlSQ
r -1 20-50
•
[ounfTp 1 whcf i n OBCm nflo ps
2 ioo-ra
10-2 Li
nnnum hra decreased by 1 00 w
L 1 50-100
J onto 10
imcpa 1.000 b*ttei«j 1945
V
4 Food (ohvumottoh wo major f maims sikci the
1940s
Anrcge doty «to* (orwupnon
ptrpwon
nlM5'
I into 2.000 cokns
■
3.5C0 - 3.000 doK
1 00*0 X* JVOCW
1 1 3.000- 2.500 cokm
■
M URN ofato
Preventive medicine
The promotion of preventive health care was one of the
greatest achievements of the last two decades of the 20th
century. Instead of just treating illness, health promotion
programmes help people take steps to improve their overall
health. Widespread immunization programmes, better edu-
cation and nutrition, and increased access to family
planning services all contributed to reductions in the infant
mortality rate during the latter part of the 20th century
(map 3), particularly in parts of Africa and Asia.
One area where preventive health practices are fighting
for a stronger foothold is in the use of addictive substances.
Nicotine is one of the most widely used drugs; WHO statis-
tics indicate that nearly one third of all adults smoke (and
nearly half of all men), with most people starting before they
reach the age of 20. Many developed countries have seen a
significant decline in consumption since the 1970s
(although the popularity of smoking among young people,
in particular young women, gives cause for concern), but
the tobacco industry continues to seek an expansion of its
market. As a consequence, cigarette smoking in industrial-
ized countries is on the increase (bar chart 3), and health
departments and practitioners expect to see an upsurge in
smoking-related heart disease and cancers.
Human health is possibly the most important issue
facing the world in the 21st century in that it is both
affected by and has an impact on environmental and demo-
graphic changes, and on social and cultural developments.
•4 In the period between 1 955 and 1 995
the number of deaths per live births or
children aged under one year decreased by
60 per cent worldwide, from an average of
148 deaths per thousand live births to 59.
Most of the developed countries managed
to reduce their rates by over 60 per cent
between the 1 960s and the late 1 990s.
While the developing world has, on the
whole, not managed such large percentage
drops, in many countries the infant death
rate has been cut substantially in real terms.
■4 The average dairy consumption of
calories in the industrialized nations is
nearly twice as much as in trie non-
industrialized nations. The five countries
consuming least per head of population are
Mozambique, Liberia, Ethiopia, Afghanistan
and Somalia. Periods of drought in sub-
Saharan Africa have severely affected
agricultural production, and in many areas
this has been exacerbated by war. In other
parts of the world, such as China, Cambodia
and North Korea, the policies of political
leaders have been responsible for millions
of deaths from starvation.
T It is estimated that around a third of the
global adult population smokes. Although
smoking is declining in parts of the
industrialized world, in other areas, notably
China (included in the figures for Western
Pacific), smoking is becoming increasingly
popular. The World Health Organization
estimated that in the mid-1 990s over 60
per cent of Chinese men smoked.
3 Consumption of cigarettes
Avmigs pacfflrtojt annual itange
DHHiBBBtil
STANDARDS OF LIVING
SINCE 1945
Comparison of incomes
eariy 1990s
D Avenge per itpic iwcra (in US dollm)
■i Pei upun incvM of *« poorar !0'~
s g
f
I
f
S 8
-C 1 OH I V
tA I U I IE
fie':
r-
I
AT Ihs mrid's weohrti is very unevenly
distributed. Die richest countries generate
nmDunls of money that, when divided by
the tolal population, produce (rhc or eric oil
pet copita incomes over four times the world
overage; ihe equivntent figure far the
poorest nalipns is one lenth of the overage
(mop II. Wilhin most tounlries there is oko
o huge ditfetenlMl between Ihe overage
monies of Ihe populalion as a whole and
that ol the pooresl ID per renl Ibm effort)
The Gross World Output (the total amount of money
generated worldwide) in 1950 was .S3..H trillion. In the
mid-1990s it was estimated to be SJO.T trillion. This
near-tenfold increase was not, however, distributed evenly
around the world. At least half of the extra wealth was
created by the United States, Japan and the countries of
Western Europe, where per capita incomes [the amount uf
money generated by a country divided by its population I
grew markedly, By contrast, elsewhere in the world eco-
nomic underdevelopment and high population growth rates
resulted in per capita incomes actually decreasing.
Wealth amj poykkh
The result of this unecpial growth is an increasing disparity
between the national wealth of the richest and the poorest
countries (timjj I). Equally nniieeable, however, is the dis-
parity within a country between those with an income
sufficient to provide a decent standard of living and the
poorest members of society. The gap between rich and poor
is most pronounced in the developed countries, where the
average income of the poorest 20 per cent of the population
may be as little as a quarter of the average per capita
income (bar chart).
Poverty can he defined in different ways. In the United
States the "poverty line" is calculated in relation to the cost
of providing a nourishing diet fur one person for one year. In
199fi, 15 per cent of the US population was considered to
he living below the poverty line, with a disproportionate
number from the minority ethnic groups. In some European
Union countries poverty is defined in relative terms, giving
a typical figure of between 2 and per cent.
Thk Human Development Index
Despite the wide disparity of incomes within the industrial-
ized countries, the majority of their populations have their
most basic health and educational needs met. In many non-
industrialized countries, on the other hand, free (and easy)
access to doctors and schools is by no means universal. The
disparity between the conditions experienced by the popu-
lations of the richest and the poorest nations of the world
prompted the United Nations in I WO to develop an index
that defined and measured human development. The
income of a country is one factor included, but figures for
life expectancy ami for literacy are also taken into account,
producing an overall score for each country. The Human
Development Keoorr 1997, based on figures for ]<>94.
showed Canada at the top of the scale, scoring 0,96 out of
the maximum possible score of' 1, with Sierra Leone at the
bottom, scoring 0.1 Td {map 2).
Like expectancy
Tlie Human Development Index scores a country on the
basis of the age to which a baby born in that country might
be expected to live. In so doing it takes into account not
only the general health of the population, but also the infant
mortality rate. While the latter has improved dramatically
since I960 ipuges 276-77), at the end of the 20th century
it was still over 10 per cent in many non-industrialized
countries, resulting in an average life expectancy at birth of
between 40 and 50 years of age. However, those who survive
the early years of life can expect to live well beyond their
forties. For example, in Malawi, where the infant mortality
rate is around 14 per cent, a girl who has survived until 15
years uf age can expect to live, on average, until she is 62
years of age, In many countries improved health care,
including vaccination, has resulted in substantial increases
in life expectancy for both children and adults. Programmes
to provide access to fresh water are also helping to improve
the health of young and old people alike, and thus not only
to improve life expectancy but also to raise the quality of
lieople's lives.
EnCCATlOIN AM) LITERACY
In 1959 the United Naticais General Assembly proclaimed
that The child is entitled to receive education, which shall
be free and compulsory, at least in the elementary stages."
Education became, for the first time in history, the right of
young people worldwide. In 1962 the UN went further and
attempted to remove barriers to education for such reasons
as sex, religion, ethnic group and economic conditions.
Education thus became the right of all people, but the
extent to which they are given the opportunity to exercise
that right remains highly variable, depending on where a
person lives and whether they arc male or female.
It Is difficult to compare the amount of money spent on
education by the different nations of the world. Expenditure
on education as a percentage of Gross National l'roduct
IGNP) gives an idea of the importance a country attaches
1 Distribution of wuim
1 (onnft's GNP per (coto os oercenroje
ofmrld
ownjc 1557141 1!?5:
H
vmW,
i 1
JMMOKi,
~...
IM-20W
□
SHOW
EJ
!S-S0\
H
n-m
H
unfa lift.
tux
Country will GNP per ceprtD
eneng ■w:'itsl
MQZ [OB** wft 6N? pa co?id
;Jnii'.n; ishtf r
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
2 Human DtvELOPMiNT Index
HDI scare IW
0900
| 0700-O.W*
3 0.500-0.491
^] 0.J0O-O.W
3] ink am
^\ data npf cwaifaiilB
* IAJ '.a nrry inilfl " I'l -o i nit !0 flu H f i
niaeh^traiifc GNP per (QOira raiting
aiu« [r«*fW*HI)lirriJrigM|*XBa
more Icwer Ttwn its GUP per tcpto rating
to education; it indicates, for example, that some of the
poorest nations of the world recognize how vital literacy is
to their economic development and so invest a compara-
tively high proportion of their GNP in education (map 3).
Their resources are meagre, however, in comparison with
those available to the countries of the industrialized world.
Rising enrolment in education
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) has estimated that during the
second half of the 20th century student enrolment rose
from 300 million to more than 1 billion. Enrolment in
primary education, which begins at any time between the
ages of 5 and 7 and provides the basic elements of educa-
tion, increased markedly, with the result that the majority
of children now receive some form of schooling.
Secondary education (enrolment at ages 10-12 years)
and tertiary education (enrolment at ages 17-19 years), in
institutions such as middle and high schools, vocational
schools, colleges and universities, experienced an even
more startling increase during the second half of the 20th
century, with enrolments more than doubling. The take-up
of higher education was highest in North American coun-
tries, and at its lowest in such areas as sub-Saharan Africa
and China. High primary education enrolment levels did not
necessarily mean high levels of post-primary education.
Many countries experienced setbacks in educational
progress in the 1980s as war and decreased aid and trade
led to cutbacks in government provision of free education.
Enrolment in school often drops if parents have to shoulder
the burden of paying for their children's education, and even
where education is free, parents may keep their children at
home to provide vital agricultural labour, or because they
cannot afford to clothe them properly.
At the end of the 20th century education was just one
of the necessities denied to many of the world's population
- pointing to the need for a redistribution of monetary
wealth and natural resources on a worldwide basis.
However, the focus of each country continues to be on how
it can best provide for its own citizens and operate in a
growing global economy.
A The Human Development Index scores
each country according to how close ilk to a
target standard: an average lifespan of 85
years, universal access to education and a
reasonable Income for all. It also ranks the
countries of the world according to both
their development score and their GNP per
capita. Some countries (particularly those in
eastern Europe and the former Soviet
Union) achieve a much higher development
ranking than would be expected from their
GNP per capita, while the development
rankings of other, comparatively wealthy,
countries (in particular many of the Arab oil
states) are lower than expected.
A For many of the world's children an
outdoor classroom is the best they can hope
for at school. Many do not even have desks,
while books, paper and writing equipment
are all in short supply.
► In many countries half the population
have not achieved basic standards of
literacy. Some of the poorest nations spend
over 6 per cent of their GNP on education,
but this is still not enough to guarantee
free access to a decent education for all.
3 LITER ACT AND EDUCATION 1 995
Phiwidjc <i oWi poputofon irtrare 1 WS:
■ n-rov
□ 75-50*
o LVrtiopfrg cotfiriy spewing b\
^| wW
S SB-rax
[ , undor2Sfi
oi more of to GNP ixi ttkafatt
THE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
SINCE 1945
1 Carbon dioxide emissions
and threatened coastunes
Fmissions of CO? in IMines par psrsm
(eiyenrdW):
| DWlO
n i-s
□ wArl
OiuuBliiffljmiiBiiKiiUlMi
A Ortl 1QQS ncrajS
£1 SO-lCWnincrwuw
▼ reduction in emission
Maud ronsK n ao^er 9
Heading Iro-n rising ien hds
A The emission of tartan dioxide into the
!'i ■:■. ■• [torn ihe burning ol fossil fuels
is believed to increase the natural ly
occurring 'greenhouse effect*, causing a rise
in tbe farth's air and sea temperatures Tnis
is likely In have fan earning efforts on the
climate and possibly load la an increase in
sea level of around 50-1 N centimetres
(1 9-39 inthes] in The 21 si century.
▼ The world's tropical rainforests are being
cul down at an ever-increasing rale. The
limber trade makes an important
conlribution lo the economies of many
Iropknl regions, and population growth has
also created demand far more farmland.
Once the trees have been removed
however, the land ran only be used for a
short while far agricultural and gracing
purposes hefore the topsail becomes
nutritionally depleted or eroded
Average gioml TiMfERATij re 1959—95
Aveioge "emperanirB m d&grnos (efclus
15 5
h;
Human activity h:is always had an impact on the
natural environment, but the industrialization.
urbanization and a rapidly increasing population of
the last two centuries have had far-reaching adverse effects
never before experienced. Changes in the environment
range from those readily visible - such as deforestation,
desertification and air pollution or smog - to less visible
phenomena, such as climate change, damage to the upper
ozone layer, mineral depiction, water pollution, and i lii-
extinction of plants and insects. Although these changes
l>ugan to occur before the 20th century, it is only since the
)9o<ls that they have heeti brought to public attention.
St sr.UNAIH.K III Wlni'MI M
Government policies regarding the environ mem, and
various environmental conferences since the 1970s, includ-
ing the 17s' Conference on Environment and Development
in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (the "Earth Summit"), have
INCdCMNA
. -^ ,
aha,
MADAGASCAR JaS^
-.PHILIPPINES
2 Threat to THE
Ganges dcita
Sentemcmts wtb popylnHDn
O over t mtiriwi
O lDO.uOQ- 1 million
o inter 100,000
Shoneta after rise in sua f&rtl of:
1 matte 13'!')
3 metres tf '8")
imarnMlsTl
BURMA
t!P^!T
-4 Annual average global lemperatures
showed a marked increase during the
second half of the 20th century, with the
three holiest years o! the century occurring
in the 1990s.
A fhe law lying region of the Ganges delta
would be severely affected by a one-metre
(three- loot) rise in seo level. One of the
most densely populated regions of the world
can ill afford to lose fertile land in this way.
brought world leaders together to discuss the state of the
environment and draw up plans of action. For cultural, eco-
nomic and geographic reasons, numerous divergent views
are held on the state of the environment, but it is generally
agreed that some environmental monitoring and action is
necessary. One of the most important concepts in environ-
mental theory at the beginning of the 2 1st century is that
of "sustainable development" - an approach to the use of
the Earth's natural resource;- thru does not jeopardize tht
well-being of future generations.
Global vahidmc
Among the most widely publicized environmental problems
in the 1 Wi)s was that of global warming (graph). A layer of
carbon dioxide (CO,) in the Earth's atmosphere traps heat
from the sun's rays In a naturally occurring process known
as the "greenhouse effect". Although the Earth's average
temperature has always fluctuated naturally, many believe
that emission of CO. from the burning of fossil fuels such as
coal and oil are increasing the greenhouse effect and have
been responsible for a rise of around 0.5° Celsius (1°
Fahrenheit) during the 20th century.
Emissions of CO ; have risen steadily since the 1950s.
The larger industrial countries emit most (mop 1 ), although
many are now working towards curtailing, or at least stabi-
lizing, their emissions. However, countries that have
industrialized only recently are reluctant to restrict their
industrial development or invest in new technology neces-
sity Lo bring about a reduction. Predictions vary as to tbe
amount by which temperatures are set to rise over the next
century, and the possible effects of further global Warming,
It is likely, however, that global warming will cause the tem-
perature of the world's oceans to increase and thus expand,
causing flooding in low-lying areas (map 2).
Forests naturally absorb harmful CO,, and deforestation
also contributes to rising CO, levels. Rainforests have been
destroyed at an increasing rate since the 1960s, with those in
South America and Asia the most heavily affected (map J).
The nuclear power industry has provided an alternative
to the use of fossil fuels, generating .^50 per cent more
(lower worldwide in 1990 than in its early days in the 1960s.
Nuclear power is not without its risks, however. The acci-
dents at Three Mile Island in the United States in 197') and
at Chernobyl in ihe Ukraine in 19M>, coupled with the prob-
lems associated with the disposal of nuclear waste, have led
many to see the nuclear industry as one of the major threats
to humans and to the environment.
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
4 Acid deposition and urban
pouution 1990s
^|tany aid
I I (HleBrrai4.rj(rastod(fc)
I I pm.M.5
• (1(4.5-5.0
City wiA footi level cf wr polkmon
Industrialization and globalization
An increasing demand for electricity is made by the world's
industries. While providing many benefits, such as
increased wealth, employment and self-sufficiency, indus-
trialization can also lead to an increase in air and water
pollution, to changes in land use and to rapidly growing
urban environments. One of the effects of industrialization
has been increased emission into the atmosphere of sulphur
and nitrogen. This falls back to Earth, either as dry deposits,
or, combined with natural moisture, as "acid rain" (map 4),
not only damaging trees and natural vegetation but also
affecting crops and fish stocks in freshwater lakes.
Technological developments, particularly in areas such
as transport and electronic communication, have helped to
create a global economy in which people, products and
information can move easily around the world. However,
aircraft, ships, trains, passenger and heavy goods vehicles
all pollute the environment, and require large-scale changes
to the landscape. They can also lead to environmental dis-
asters, such as oil and chemical spills (map 5).
Oceans are particularly susceptible to environmental
damage. Since the 1960s regulations have been established
regarding such activities as offshore oil drilling, navigation
and fisheries. The United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea, which came into force in 1994, not only gives
countries economic control over their coastal regions, but
also the obligation to monitor and regulate marine pollution.
Global efforts are being made to conserve land and
protect ecosystems, but preservation or protection is costly
and may be hard to achieve in countries whose resources
are already insufficient to meet population needs and whose
economies are racing to catch up with those of the richer
nations. The notion of sustainable development requires
changes in the way people live their lives, and in the relative
importance they assign to consumption over protection of
the Earth's resources - changes that are difficult to achieve.
S Wwot rouimoN swa the 1 960s
* Mapdbifctispi ▼ Offshan* dwnpu% br mhu
HtoAnbpAta
4* Mqof c4 rig uon art | | 5mto ptJuMn
^] Area at fiequHKi <J pofluiion
tooo whfflB cffrj iflflh ltd infer rtirwi
< Acid deposition is caused by high levels
of sulphur and nitrogen being discharged
into the atmosphere by industrial processes
and combining with wafer vapour and
oxygen to form acids. The acidic particles
can fall close to the site of their source,
causing pollution and erosion of city
buildings, or be carried hundreds of
kilometres away by prevailing winds, to
affect vegetation in rural areas. Despite
attempts by many governments to clean up
the air in their cities, the increasing use of
motorized transport has contributed to
unacceptable levels of pollution in many of
the world's cities.
< Among the many causes of water
pollution are the dumping of industrial
waste and sewage in rivers and seas, and oil
spillages from tankers - although the
number of major oil spillages reduced
markedly during the 1 980s from a high of
750,000 tonnes in 1979 to under 50,000
tonnes in 1 990. Coral reefs (which cover
less than 1 per cent of the ocean floor, but
provide habitats for about 25 per cent of
marine life) are susceptible to damage
caused by destructive fishing techniques,
recreational use, changing sea levels and
chemical pollution.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
SINCE 1945
▼ Cor ownership rs uric verily distributed
around the world, with mnny families in the
industrialized world owning two or more
cars, and millions of people in Ibe nan-
industtinliied world never having the
opportunity of travelling in one. In the
1960s the United Stales was still the largest
(or producer in the world, but ri experienced
no significant iiKieme it output from the
1960s onwards and by me end ol the 20lh
ceniury had been overtaken hy Japan 01
(he European countries, Germany and
Fronts are in Ihe some league as the United
Slates, although the biggest increase in
production was seen in Spain. The roost
remarkable develapmenl in car production
was in Japan, China and Korea, vrilh
increases of over 5,000 per renl between
the 1960s and the end of the 10th cenlory.
When the American Wright brother! made the first
fliiihi in rt motorized aircraft :it Kitty I lawk. North
Carolina in L903 their invention was recognised as
a milestone in transportation history. At the beginning of
the century steamboats and trains were well-established
methods of transport worldwide, and use of the recently
invented telephone and ear was spreading through the
industrialized tuitions. However, the manner iu which
people travel and the methods by which they communicate
have changed dramatically since then, and in particular
since the l%()s,
High-speed trains, planes and cars, mobile phones, per-
sonal pagers, computers, electronic mail and the Internet
have all contributed to an case of travel and immediacy of
communication that has created what has been termed a
"global village". At [he same time, in vast areas of the non-
industriuli/ed worid, millions of people continue to live in
real villages, excluded from, or touched only lightly by, the
technological wonders of the late JOth century.
SOJtHKOREAA
h
I Car ownership and pboductioh
Number ot people per rix re iwt- 1 990s.
^| undef S fZ3 I DO— 50D
■ 5-H Ij 500- 1,000
■ 25-100 " I o«h 1,000
S.
Irareose in cor production 1 960-90'
* m-w\
A 503 -1. 000":
A weil,0em
S
The thanspoht kkvom ticiin
Car ownership and productirat in the industrialized nations
grew at an enormous rate during the 20th century, ( !ars
were initially owned only by the well-off. hut the Innovation
of mass-produced, and therefore relatively inexpensive, cars
greatly expanded their ownership in North America and
Europe during the 1920s and 1930s. Even so, in 1950 the
number owned worldwide was still below 100 million,
whereas 40 years later it was approaching 6(H) million.
Japan, in particular, saw a boom in car production and
ownership from 19(>5 onwards, and by the end of the 20th
century China had also increased its ear production, from
80,000 cars a year in 1970 to around 1,5 million. Never-
theless, at the end of the 20th century the main mode of
transport for millions ol people, in China and elsewhere, was
still a bicycle or other non-motorized vehicle. While car
ownership has almost reached saturation point iu many
iinlustrmlizci! nations, with one ear for fewer than five
people and some cities forced to place restrictions on car
use, in large areas of the world there is only one car per
1.000 people (tmip 1).
Alongside the marked increase in car ownership, air
travel has also l>ecomc the norm for those in the industrial-
ized world. The total number of kilometres flown each year
continues to grow r^Jmpn), as people venture further and
further afield for reasons of business and pleasure (nitjtJ 2),
T Increased vehicle ownership and a
general decline in Ihe availability of public
transport led to overstretched road systems
and to more frequent traffic jams
throughout the industrialized world al
ihe end ol the 20lh century.
▼ ►■ Bolh the number ol flights taken
each year and ihe distances (lawn have
inci eased as people hove become
oceuslomed ta traveling further for
recreation and business. It is now the norm
for many Europeans. North Americans and
Australians la fly to foreign destinations lor
their holidays, with the more "oxalic"
locations in relatively inaccessible areas
becoming more and more popular. In large
countries, such as the United Stales, Canada
and Russia, people travelling to destinations
within their country have increasingly
turned tram rail to air travel.
Number of passenger xiiomethes
FtOWH 1970-95 (in mitliocts]
1,500.000 - - - —
?,ODO,000
1,500.000
1.000,000 /■
iDO.OOO,
0, r _ , , ,
wo ws t?B0 im mo tm
CchAb
a
Acapulcoo P/f"
Palenqur
iami
'O BAHAMAS
CANARY ISLANDS
, I VtRGlM ISIAND5
lAMACA
o BARBADOS
HAWAII
.
KtodKifkaB
dc Janei rd
nJfOfu JVdi
/
(jG Durban
2 Pashmger KILOMETRES {MILES) FLOWN 1994
UuTter ar passenger k«an»tr-es i.miles] ^lowr linlnrffltioral And darastiO \Wl
H ** m ' m K2.HH) million □ 1,000-10,000 UlS-iM i
■ 50.QCG - 1 D0.D00 1750- hi 5001 m*on ~ 590 - 1 .000 (3 1 Z-4Z51 rnion
Z\ 10.0Oa-50.MIC 14.250-31.2501 nJtan [] under 500 (313} mKw
Mujfi luuns! destinotiun
© Man loura! dKnrwScn
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: PART 5
The manner in which we travel has an impact on the
environment. The construction of roads, railways, water-
ways and airports often requires extensive changes to the
landscape, and cars and trucks, aircraft, ships and trains all
produce pollutants that are released into the atmosphere
(pages 280-81). In order to reduce environmental pollution,
governments, town planners and vehicle manufacturers are
being urged to consider these issues when designing new
transport networks and developing new models.
Communication
At the beginning of the 20th century the quickest way to
send a message across the world was by telegraph, via a
network of overland and undersea cables (pages 208-9).
The invention of the radio-telephone in 1902 and subse-
quent improvements in the quality of transcontinental
telephone signals enabled the human voice to travel huge
distances. However, the most significant advance in this
sphere was the development, during the 1960s, of a network
of communications satellites that allowed not only aural, but
also visual, signals to be sent up into space and bounced
back, greatly enhancing telephone links and enabling live
television broadcasts to be made from one side of the world
to the other. Several hundred active communications satel-
lites now orbit the globe, and without these none of the
major developments in communications of the late 20th
century would have been possible.
Mass television ownership enables people worldwide to
share programmes. American and British soap operas are
shown, for example, dubbed, on Russian television. Major
events, such as the football World Gup Finals, are watched
simultaneously by hundreds of millions of people. For those
without access to a television set, the radio often provides a
link with the outside world. The BBC World Service alone
had an estimated 140 million regular listeners worldwide in
the late 1990s, enabling people to obtain news they might
otherwise be prevented from hearing.
The most spectacular development in international
communication since the 1980s has been the Internet,
giving millions of people in the industrialized world almost
instant access to a vast network of information, and the
means to communicate with each other speedily and
cheaply. It has been made possible largely through the
development of the microprocessor, which enabled small
personal computers to be manufactured from the mid-1970s
onwards. By the mid-1980s these machines had become
powerful enough for their users to be able to access the
Internet, a worldwide computer networking system. First
developed in the 1970s for the United States Department of
Defense, it was subsequently extended to the academic
community, commercial organizations and the general
public. By the end of the 20th century there were more than
130 million users of the "worldwide web", created in 1994,
with millions more using electronic mail (e-mail).
Technological advancement is the province of the rich
nations, with, for example, almost 50 per cent of the world's
personal computers to be found in the United States
(map 3). The technological gap between rich and poor
nations is an enormous challenge for those in the process
of industrializing, although it may also be to their advantage
if there is sufficient money to buy the latest technology. In
China, for example, where until recently few households
had a telephone, the old telecommunications technology,
involving the laying of cables, is being bypassed in favour of
the installation of radio masts for mobile telephones.
Cultural integrity
All forms of communication require language and there are
estimated to be over 5,000 languages in use. Of these,
English, Mandarin Chinese, Hindi, Spanish and French are
the most widely spoken, but far more people use them as
their official language than as their mother tongue (bar
chart). Although there are, of course, benefits to a country
having a common language, there are also disadvantages.
There has been a sharp decline in the number of different
African languages spoken, leading to a disintegration of the
cultural values and traditions attached to those languages.
Cultural integrity is also challenged by developments in
global communications, which have provided the most tech-
nologically advanced countries with a powerful means of
spreading their ideologies and culture.
The extent to which countries can participate in the
"global village" will affect their future prosperity. There is
no question that modes of transportation and communica-
tion will continue to evolve at great speeds, but whether
they will become universally available remains uncertain.
▲ Computer technology represents huge
profits for the countries involved in
producing it, and has provided businesses
and individuals worldwide with enormous
benefits. It has also created a widening
social and economic gap between those who
have access to it and those who do not.
T The most widely used official language in
the world is English, partly as a result of
British influence in the 19th century but
more recently because of the domination of
US culture. In countries such as China and
India, where many languages are spoken, it
is essential to have a single language in
which official communications can be made.
THE WORLD'S MAJOR LANGUAGES
1990 (in millions of speakers)
Mw mnjue
Ottaa 1 tapw
INDEX
The spelling of place names
While every effort has been made to standardize the place names in
this atlas, the fact that they can differ so much over time - as well as
with language - means that variations inevitably exist. (These variations
are given in the index.) In applying the basic guidelines outlined below,
a commonsense approach has been adopted that allows for deviations
where they serve a purpose.
The conventional Anglicized spelling, without accents, is used for
large and familiar places (e.g. Munich rather that Munchen, Mecca
rather than Makkah). For smaller places in countries that use the
Roman alphabet, the local form is given (e.g. Krakow). However, in
keeping with current academic practice in the United States, accents
are omitted from the Spanish forms of American-Indian place names
dating from before the 16th-century conquest.
Where a name has changed due to political creed or ownership,
this is often reflected in the maps. Thus St Petersburg is sometimes
shown as Petrograd or Leningrad in maps of 20th-century Russia, and
Strasbourg is spelt Strassburg when it was under German rather than
French control.
If a country was once known by a name that differs from the one it
holds at present, this is used where appropriate. Thus Thailand appears
as Siam on many of the maps dating from before 1938 when it adopted
its present name.
For Chinese names the increasingly familiar Pinyin form is used
throughout (e.g. Beijing rather than Peking). However, where
appropriate, the former spelling adopted under the Wade-Giles system
also appears (e.g. Guangzhou is also labelled Canton on maps relating
to European colonial activity in China). For the sake of clarity, diacritics
are generally omitted from names derived from other non-Roman scripts
by transliteration - notably Arabic and Japanese.
The index
The index includes the names of people and events as well as place
names. To avoid unhelpful references to maps, place names are indexed
only when the place is associated with a particular event or is marked
by a symbol included in the key.
Alternative place names are given wherever appropriate, either in
brackets or after the words "see also". References to maps are indicated
by italics (e.g. 119/3 refers to map 3 on page 119J, as are references
to pictures.
Achaea Phthiotis 41/3
Achaemenid Empire 40-41, 41/3, 42-43, 45, 51
Achaia 96, 96/2, 97/3
see also Achaea
Achin 119/3
Achinsk 223/3
Acigol 18/2
Acoma Pueblo 108/1
Acre, Holy Land 94/2, 95, 95/4, 9S/S, 98/1
Ada, Gold Coast 137/2
Adad-nirari I, King of Assyria 37
Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) 182
Adelaide 202/1
Aden
500-1500 83/2
1400-1790 117/1,118/1, 139/2
1880-1914 208/1
Adena 25, 25/2
Admiralty Islands 26/1 , 235/3
Adobe Walls, Batde of (1874) 183/4
Adrar Bous 22/2
Adrar Tioueiine 22/2
Adrianople 67/1, 67/3, 97
see also Edirne
Adrianople, Treaty of 178-79/1
Adulis, Red Sea 52/1
Adwuku 22/1
Adygea 263/2
Aegidius and Syagrius 74, 74/1
Aegyptus
see also Egypt
500 bc-ad 400 55/i , 55/3
Aetolia 41/4
Afghan Civil War 237
Afghanistan
to ad 500 43
1500-1765 142/2, 144
1795-1914 180, 180/1
migration 1979 275/3
post-1945 243, 260/1,261
Soviet intervention 1979-89 236, 236/2,
242/1, 244, 245/1, 262
Taliban 243, 261
United Nations' operation 1988-90 266/1
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) 74/2
Aalst 103/3
Aargau 155/2
AbajTakalik 3271, 32/2
Abakan 223/3
Abaoji 87
Abaskun 78/2
Abbas I, Shah of Persia 143
Abbasid Empire
c.850 69/2
1000-1258 88, 88/3, 89, 98/1, 99
Baghdad 68/4
Islam 750-1258 62/1, 69
Slavic trade c.800 71/3
and Tang China c.750 72/1, 73
Viking traders c.800 78/2
Abdalis 142/2
Abdera 40/2, 41/3, 41/4
Abdul Hamid II, Ottoman sultan 179
Aberdeen, Scotland 93/4, 134/1
Aberystwyth 93/4
Abidjan 281/4
Abilene 183/3
Abkhazia 263, 263/2
Abodrites 70/2, 71
Aborigines 26, 202, 203, 203
Abreu, Antonio d' 117/1
Abu Salabikh 29/3
Abu Simbel 37/2
Abydos, Egypt 30/1 , 37/2
Abydus, Anatolia 40/2, 41/3, 67/1
Abyssinia see Ethiopia
Acadia see Nova Scotia
Acanceh 84/2
Acapulco 130/1,13 1/2
Acco 37/3
Accra, Gold Coast 130/1,137/2, 208/1
Aceh, Sultanate of 196/1, 197
Aceh War (1873-1903) 197/2
Achaea 41/3, 4V4, 54/1
see also Achaia
Africa
to 10,000 bc 16, 17,17/2
10,000 BC-AD500 22-23, 23/3
500-1500 80-81, 82-83
1500-1800 136-37, 139/2
1800-80 204-5, 205/2, 205/3
1880-1939 206-7, 207/3, 209, 209/2
since 1939 246-47,24671, 256-57,
25672, 273
European exploration 1485-1600 116,
116-17/1
First World War 219
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
Islam 630-1000 68, 69
migration 1500-1914 211/2
Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54, 54/1,
55/3
slave trade 1500-1800 126
trade 150 bc-ad 500 52/1, 53
African National Congress (ANC) 269/2
Afrikaners 206, 206/2, 207
Agadez 23/3, 81/3
Agartala 280/2
Agatha 40/2
Agenais 93/5
Aggersborg 79/5
Agincourt, Battle of (1415) 106/2
Agra 144/1, 144/2, 145/3
Agram (Zagreb) 173/3,1 75/4
Agri Decumates 54/1, 55
Agricultural Revolution 210
Aguada, Peru 35/3
Aguateca 84/2
Ahhiyawa 36/1
Ahicchatra 47/3
Ahmadabad 119/2, 144/1,144/2, 145/3
Ahmadnagar 144/1
Ahmose 37
Ahom 65/3
Ahualulco 85/4
Ahuitzotl, Aztec emperor 110-11
Ai Bunar 20/1
Aidhab 8J/3, 83/2
AIDS/HIV virus 257, 276, 276
Aigospotami, Battle of (405 bc) 41/4
Ain Gev 18/1
Ain Ghazal 18/2
Ain Mahalla 18/2
Ain Mallaha 18/1
Ainu people 19
Air, Africa 23/3, 62/1 , 80/1
Airlangga 64/2
Aix, southern France 134/1
Aizuwakamatsu 141/2, 141/3
Ajanta 44/2, 47/4
Ajaria 179/3, 263/2
Ajigasawa 141/2
Ajmer 144/1, 144/2, 145/3
Ajmer Merwara 248/1
Ajnadyn, Battle of (634) 68/1
Ajodhya 145/3
Akan 80/1, 81
Akbar I, Mughal emperor 144
Akershus, Sweden 158/1
Akita 141/3
Akjoujt, West Africa 23, 23/3
Akkad 28, 28/1
Aksai Chin 249/3
Aksum see Axum
Akyab 197/2
Al Aqabah, Battle of (1917) 219/1
Al Fustat
see also Cairo
1095-1291 94/2, 95/3
Al Khanum 51/4
Al Kut, Battles of (1915, 1916, 1917) 219,
219/1
Al Mina 40, 40/2
Alabama 182/1, 184, 184/1,184/2, 185/3
Alalakh 36/1, 37/3
Alamgirpur 29/4
Alamut 98/1
Mania 67/1, 67/3
Alans 51/4, 53/1, 56-57, 56/2, 57/3, 57/4
Alaric, Visigoth king 57
Alarodia 42-43/1
Alashiya 36/1
Alaska 130/1, 180/1, 182, 210/1
Albania
500-1500 97/4, 106/1
1500-1683 142/1,14671
1683-1913 178/1
1914-18 217, 217/3, 218/1,220/1,220/2
1918-45 221/4, 230/1, 231/3, 233/2
since 1945 236/1, 237, 238/2, 264/1,
265/2, 265/3, 277/3
Albanians
since 1989 265, 265/3
Albany, Australia 202/1
Alberta, Canada 189, 1S9/3
Albigensian Crusade 95
Alborg 79/5, 91/3
Alcala, central Spain 134/1
Alcantara, Battle of (1706) 174/1
Aldabra Islands 206/1
Alemanni 56, 56/2, 57/4, 74/1
Alemannia 74, 74/2, 75
Alencon 232/1
Aleppo
500-1500 68/1, 94, 94/1,94/2, 98/1
1650-1750 131/2
2000-1000 BC 36/1
Aleria 4072, 54/1
Aleutian Islands 131/1, 234/2
Alexander I, Tsar of Russia 173
Alexander III (the Great) of Macedon 42/3,
43, 46, 4672, 51
Alexander, King of Yugoslavia 231/4
Alexandria, Egypt
to ad 500 42/3, 45/4, 52/1 , 53, 55/1 , 55/2
500-1500 67/3, 68/1, 95/3, 104/1
1650-1750 131/2
Alexandria 42/3, 47/4
see also Kandahar
Alexandria Areia 42/3, 53/1
see also Herat
Alexandria Eskhata 42/3
see also Kokand
Alexandria Margiana 51/4
Alexandria Oxiane (Ai Khanum) 42/3
Alexius I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor 96
Alfonso V, King of Aragon 106
Alfred the Great, King of Wessex 79, 79/4,
97/3
Algeria
1700-1939 204, 20671, 210/1,218/1
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
migration 1946-98 275/3
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
Second World War 232/1, 233, 233/2
since 1939 246/2, 247,256/1,25672, 257
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Algerian Civil War (1954-62) 247
Alghero, Sardinia 158/1
Algiers
1490-1800 142/1,146/1, 152/1, 153,
178/1
c. 1840 204/1
Algiers, Siege of (1541) 158/1
Algonkin 124/1
Ali Kosh 18/2, 19/3
Alice Boer, South America 24/1
Alice Springs 27/2
Alishar Hiiyiik 37/3
Alkmaar 103/3
Allahabad 144/1, 145/3
Allahdino 29/4
Alma Ata 223/3
Almansa, Battle of (1707) 158/1
Almansa, Battle of (1710) 174/1
Almeria 102/1
Almohads 88/3, 92/2, 93
Almoravids 88, 92/2, 93, 94/1
Alor Islands 197/2
Alpes Cottiae 54/1
Alpes Maritimae 54/1
Alpes Poeninae 54/1
Alphonse of Poitiers 93/5
al-Qaeda 243, 261
Alsace 166/1, 177,177/4, 216, 220
Altamira 1673
Altar de Sacrificios, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Alte Veste, Siege of 151/2
Altmark, Truce of (1629) 150
Alto Ramirez, Peru 35/3
Altun Ha, Mesoamerica 84/2
Altyn Depe 50, 50/1
Alvarado 121
Alwah 62/1
Amalfi 102/1
Amalgro, Diego de 121, 121/4
Amalric, King of Jerusalem 94, 95/3
Amarapura 19671
Amaravah 47/4
Amaravati 44/2, 47/3, 64/1
Amarna 37/2
Amaru, Tupac 190
Amastris 55/1
Amatsukominato 141/2
Amboina 118, 118/1,119/2, 119/3, 234/2
Ambon 131/1 ,196/1, 197/2
Ameca, Mexico 85/4
Amekni 22/2
Amenhotep, Egyptian pharaoh 36
American Civil War (1861-65) 127, 182-83,
184-85, 185/3, 189
American Revolution (War of Independence
1775-83) 164-65, 165/3, 188
American Samoa 246/2
Americas
see also Latin America; North America
to 10,000 bc 17, 24-25, 24/1
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
European discovery of 1450-1600 117
population 1630-1770 124
slavery 1500-1880 126-27
Spanish colonization 1492-1550 120-21
Amersfoort 103/3
Amhara, East Africa 136/1
Amid 68/1
Amiens
500-1500 75/4, 79/3, 92/1, 103/3, 105/2
1618-80 156/1
1789-94 1 66/1
Amiens, Treaty of (1801) 167
Amisea 67/1
Amisus 40/2
Amitsea 67/1
Amorbach 75/3
Amoy
see also Xiamen
1368-1644 13»1
1800-1911 199/2
1941-45 234/1
Amphipolis, Battle of (422 Be) 41/4
Amri 19/3, 29/4
Amsterdam
c.1470 103/3
1600-1800 128/1, 129/2, 132/2, 132/3,
133/4, 134/1, 156/1
1800-1900 210/1
An Lushan 73
Anabaptists 154/1, 155
Anangula 25/2
Anasazi people 108, 108/1, 109
Anatolia
2000-1000 bo 36
AD 500-1500 97/4, 99, 101/4
1500-1683 142/1, 143, 146/1
1683-1923 178-79/1,179/4
Ancon, South America 25/4
Ancona 101/4, 158/1
Ancona, Battle of (1797) .167/2
Ancona, March of 90/1
Ancyra 55/1, 55/2
Andaman Islands 196/1,197/2
Andorra 152/1,233/2
Andronovo 50/2
Andronovo culture 50/2, 51
Andros Islands 193/3
Anecho 137/2
Angers 102/1 , 134/1 ,166/1, 232/1
Angevin dynasty 101/4
Angkor 64, 64/2
Angkor Borei 53/1
Angles 5672
Anglicanism 154/1
Anglo-Burmese wars (1824-26, 1852) 196
Anglo-Dutch wars (1652, 1665-67, 1672-74)
128
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 206/1,210/1
Anglo-German Naval Pact (1935) 231
Anglo-Saxons 57/3, 57/4
Angola
1570-1800 137
1800-1939 204, 204/1, 206/1, 207, 208/1
Civil War 1974-90 245/1
democracy since 1939 256/2
famine 1994 277/4
Human Development Index 1994 279/2
independence 1975 24672, 25671, 257
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
United Nations operation 1989-99 26671,
267
Angostura 190/2
Angoulgme 74/2
Angouleme, County of 92/1
Anguilla 193/3, 247/3
Anhalt 152/1, 177/4
Anjediva 118/1
Anjou, County of 92/1 , 93/5
Anjou, House of 92/3
Ankara 67/1, 67/3
Ankobar 204/1
Ankole 136/1
Annaba 45/4
Annam
see also Vietnam
1368-1800 63/3, 131/1,139/3
1800-1914 197/2, 198/1, 199
Annan, Kofi 267
Annobon, Africa 204/1, 206/1
Anqing 138/1, 199/4
Ansbach 154/1
Anshan 29/3, 254/1, 255/2
Antietam, Battle of (1862) 184, 185/3
Antigonus 43, 43/4
Antigua 125/2, 193/3
Antigua and Barbuda 247/3
Antioch
to AD 500 45/4, 52/1
527-1025 67/1,67/3, 6471
1095-1400 94, 94/1, 94/2, 95, 95/3,
104/1
Antioch, Principality of 94/2, 95/5
Antiochia (Antioch)
AD 100-300 55/1,55/2
Antipatros 43
Antonine Wall 55/2
Antwerp
1350-1500 91/3, 103/3, 107/4
1500-1800 12471, 129/2, 132/1, 133/4,
152/1
1800-1900 210/1
Anuradhapura 44/2, 47/3, 47/4, 53/1
Anvers 75/4
Anyang 31/3
ANZUS Pact (1951) 202
Ao 31/3
Aomen 198/1
see also Macau
Aouzou Strip 266/1
Apache 108, 108/1, 109, 109/4, 183/4
Apartheid 257
Apatzingan, Mexico 85/4
APEC 273
Apollo 11 Cave 1673
Apollonia, West Africa 137/2
Appenzell 90/2, 155/2
Appledore 79/4
Appomattox, Battle of (1865) 185, 185/3
Apulia, Duchy of 94/1
Aquila 102/1
Aquileia 7671
Aquincum 54/1
Aquitaine 74, 74/1, 74/2, 92/1, 93/5
Arab-Israeli Wars (1948, 1956, 1967, 1973)
260, 261/3, 273
Arabia
500 BC-AD 400 52-53/1 , 55, 55/1 , 55/3
500-1500 66, 66-67/1, 68, 83, S3/2,
104/1
1500-1760 139/2
1880-1914 208/1
Aragon
500-1500 62/1,92/2, 92/3, 93, 93/5,
102/1,107/3
1500-1600 146, 14671, 152/1
Aragon, Crown of
900-1300 92/2, 92/3, 93, 101, 101/4
c.1400 106/1
Arahama 141/2
Arakan 65/3, 194/2, 196, 19671
Aralsk 223/3
Aratta 29/3
Arawaks 122/1
Arawan 81/3
Arbela 42/3
Arcadia 41/3
Arcadiopolis 67/1
Arcot, southeast India 144/4, 145/3
Arcy-sur-Cure 16/3
Ardabil 69/1
Arequipa, Peru 35/3, 190/2
Arezzo, northern Italy 134/1
Argaru, southeast India 53/1
Argentina
1830-1914 191/3, 192/1, 193, 208/1,209
economy since 1945 272/1
ethnic composition since 1945 259/3
First World War 226/3
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
manufacturing since 1945 258
migration 1918-98 275/3
population 1800-1914 210/1
population 1920-50 227/1
Second World War 226/4
slavery 1500-1880 127/2
trade 1980 273/3
trade 1990s 258/1
United States intervention since 1945
242/1,259/2
Argonne, Battle of (1918) 219/2
Arguin 81/3
Arhus 79/5
Arianism 45/4
Aristophanes 40
Aristotle 134
Arizona 182/1
Arkansas 182/1, 184, 184/1, 184/2, 185/3
Arkhangelsk 181/3, 223/3
Aries 75/4
Aries, Kingdom of 93/5
Arlit 22/2
Armenia
to ad 500 42/1, 55
1970s 236/2
1988-98 262, 262/1, 263/2, 279/2
Abbasid dynasty 800-900 6871, 69/2
crusades 1095-1291 95/5
First World War 221, 221/3
Great Seljuk Empire c.1092 8672
Ottoman Empire 1307-1923 97/4, 143/1,
179,179/1,179/4
religion 750-1450 62/1
Armenia, Cilieian Kingdom of see Cilician
Kingdom of Armenia
Arminius 56
Armorium 67/1
Arnhem 103/3
Arran, Middle East 69/2, 88/2
Arras 103/3
Arras, Battles of (1914, 1918) 219/2
Arroyo Pesquero, Mesoamerica 32/1
Artemisium, Battle of (480 BC) 41, 41/3
Artois 93/5, 103/3, 153/2
Artukids 88/3
Am Islands 119/2, 19671, 197/2
Aruba 193/3, 247/3
Arunachal Pradesh 249, 249/3
Arzawa 36, 3671
Asante (Ashanti) 204/1,206/1
Asante Empire 136/1, 137, 137/2
Ascalon 94/2
Ascension 246/2, 247/4
Ashdod 37/3, 45/3
Ashikaga 87
Ashkhabad 223/3
Ashoka, Indian emperor 45, 46, 46/1 , 47
Ashur 3671
Asia
see a(so Central Asia; East Asia; South
Asia; Southeast Asia
to 10,000 BC 17, 17/2
500 BC-AD 400 52-53, 55/1
agriculture 12,000 bc-ad 500 18-19,
1872, 19/3
Black Death 1347-52 104-5
colonies 1939 24671
deforestation since 1945 280
economy since 1945 273
empires c.1700 112/1
European activity 1500-1790 118-19
European exploration 1450-1600 117/1
foreign investment in 1914 209/2
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
independence movements since 1945
246
religions c.1500 63/3
Russian expansion 1462-1914 148
Russian expansion 1795-1914 180
Second World War 234-35
Tang dynasty 618-907 72/1
Asia Minor (see Anatolia)
Asia, Peru 25/4, 34/1
Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation
Organization 243, 243/2, 273
Askalon 37/3
Aspern and Essling, Battle of (1805) 167/2
Aspero, Peru 25/4, 34/1
Assam 194/2, 199/2, 248/1
Assinie 137/2
Assuwa 36, 3671
Assyria 55
Assyria-Babylonia 42-43/1
Assyrian Empire
2000-1000 BC 36, 37
c.900-612 BC 38, 38/1, 39, 39/4, 42
Astarabad 142/2
Asti 103/2, 147/3
Astoria, northwest United States 183/3
Astrakhan
1462-1795 148, 148/1,148/2
20th century 181/3, 222/1 , 223/3
Asuncion, Paraguay 122/2, 227/1
Aswan 3671, 81/3
Aswan Dam 260/1
Asyut 81/3, 83/2, 204/1
Atahualpa, Inca king 121, 121
Atalla, Peru 34/1
Atapuerca 1 7/2
Atarco, Peru 35/3
Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal) 179, 179, 221
Ath 103/3
Athanaric 56
Athens
to AD 500 40-41, 41/3, 41/4, 43
527-1300 67/1,102/1
1990s 281/4
Athens, Duchy of 96, 96/2, 97/3
Atjeh 11671, 119/2
Atlan 111/3
Atlanta, Battle of (1864) 185/3
Attalia 67/1
Attica 41, 41/3, 41/4
Attigny 7472, 92/1
Attila, Hun king 57, 57/3, 76, 77
Atwetwebooso 23/3
Auckland 202/1
Augsburg
500-1500 75/3, 102/1, 107/4
1500-1800 132/2, 133/4
Augsburg, Peace/Treaty of (1555) 147, 155
August Rebellion 1991 263/3
Augusta Vindelicum 54/1
Augustus (Octavian) 54, 54
Aulnay-aux-Planches 21/3
Aurangabad 145/3
Aurangzeb, Mughal emperor 145, 145/3
Austerlitz, Battle of (1805) 167, 167/2
Austhorpe 135/2
Australia
to AD 1000 17, 26-27, 2671, 27/2
colonies 1920-98 246-A7/2, 246/1, 250/1
since 1790 202-3, 208/1
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
computer ownership 1990s 283/3
economy since 1790 203/2
economy since 1945 272/1
exploration 1606-1874 202/1
female suffrage 270/1
First World War 219
foreign investment in 1914 209/2
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 229/3
immigration 1790-1914 211/2
migration 1918-98 275/3
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
population 1800-1900 211/1
trade 1913 209
Australopithecines 16, 1671
Austrasia 74-75, 74/2
Austria
see also Austria-Hungary
dictatorship 1934-39 231/4
First World War 220/2, 221
and France 1793-1815 166, 166/1, 167,
167/2, 167/3
German annexation 1938 230/2, 231
German Confederation 1815-66 177
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2
Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152, 152/1,
153, 153/3
Habsburg Empire 1700-1918 172, 174/1,
175/2,175/3
Holy Roman Empire c.950-1360 90/1,
91/3
Ottoman Empire 1699-1739 17872
Polish partition 1772-1795 151, 151/5
revolts 1618-80 15671
Second World War 233/2
since 1945 233/3, 238/1 , 238/2, 272/1
Thirty Years War 1618^18 159/2
urbanization 1500-1800132/1, 132/2,
132/3, 133/4
War of the Spanish Succession 1701-14
174/1
Austria-Hungary
1867 177/4
creation 1867 175
First World War 216-217, 216/1, 21672,
217, 217/3, 218-19, 218/1, 220-21,
220/1
industrialization 1867-1914 170/1, 1/ '1/3
trade 1913 209
Austrian Empire
1815 177/3
civil unrest 1820-49 1 72/2, 173, 173/3,
174-75,175/4
Italian territories 1815-71 176, 17671,
176/2
treaty settlements 1814-15 1 72/1
Austrian Netherlands
see also Belgium
1700-1814 166/1,174/1
Austrian Succession, War of the (1740-48)
174
automobiles (see cars)
Autun 45/4, 75/3, 75/4
Auvergne 93/5
Auvergne, County of 92/1
Auxerre 74/2
Ava 65, 65/3, 19671
Avars 67/1, 70, 74/2, 75, 76, 76/2, 77
Avellaneda, Argentina 227/1
Aversa 102/1
Avignon
1350-1500 105/2, 106, 107/4
1500-1770134/1,154/1
1789-94 166/1
Avignon Popes 106, 107/3
Aviz dynasty 106
Awadh, northeast India 144/1, 144/4, 145/3
Awami League 249
Awjilah 81/3, 83/2
Axbridge 79/4
Axim, West Africa 137/2
Axima, Alpes Peoninae 54/1
Axis Powers 226, 232-33
Axum (Aksum) 23/3, 52/1
Axumite Kingdom 52/1 , 82
Ayacucho 25/4
Ayacuoho, Battle of (1824) 190/2
Ayn Jalut, Battle of 88-89, 98-99
Ayodhya 47/3
Avuthia 64, 65/3
Ayyubid Sultanate 88/3, 89, 95, 95/5, 98/1
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Azana y Diaz, Manuel 231
Azangaro, Peru 35/3
Azarbayjan (Iran)
800-1092 69/2, 88/2
Azerbaijan
1500-1730 143/1,179/1
1970s 236/2
1988-98 262, 262/1, 263, 26*2
Human Development Index 1994 279/2
religious conflict 1990-95 269/2
since 1945 260/1
Azeris 142/2, 143
Azores 130/1,246/2
Azov. Sea of 149, 149/3, 158/1
Aztecs, North America 108/1, 108/2
Aztec Empire
1400-1500 110-11, 111/3, 111/4
1500-50 117, 120, 120/2, 120/3, 122,
122/1
Baalbek 94/2
Babar 196/1
Babur, Mughal emperor 144, 144/1
Babuyan Islands 196/1,197/2
Babylon 37/1, 42, 42/1, 42/3
Babylonia 36, 37, 37/1 , 38/1, 39, 39/4
Bacan Islands 196/1, 197/2
Baetra 42/3, 47/4, 53/1 , 104/1
see also Balkh
Bactria 43/1,5.3/1
Bada 52/2
Badakshan 29/3
Baden 173/3, 177/4
Badr, Battle of (624) 68/1
Baetica 54/1
Baeza 102/1
Bagamoyo 204/1
Baghdad
630-1000 68/4, 69, 71/3, 78/2
1000-1400 88, 89, 98/1, 99, 101/4, 104/1
1990s 281/4
Bagherhat 280/2
Bahama Islands 130/1,193/3, 247/3, 247/4
Bahawaipur 194/2
Bahia 122/2, 130/1
Bahmani Sultanate 89/4
Bahrain
see also Dilmun
150 BC-AD 500 53
500-1500 69/1,69/2
1880-1914 208/1
since 1945 246/2, 260/1 , 277/3
Bahrain Island 119/2
Baiyu 224/1
Bakongo 206/1
Baku 181/3, 222/1, 223/3, 263/2
Balakof 29/4
Balancan, Mesoamerica 84/2
Balasghun 98/1
Balboa 120, 120/1
Balearic Islands
500-1500 66/1,92/2, 101/4
1500-1800 132/1,132/2, 132/3, 133/4,
146/1
Bali
750-1500 62/1, 63/3
1792-1914 196/1,197/2
Second World War 234/2
Balkan Wars (1912-13) 217/3
Balkh 69/1, 98/1
see also Baetra
Ballynagilly, Ireland 20/1
Baltimore 185/3, 187/3, 208/1 , 210/1
Baluchis 249/3
Baluchistan 195/3, 248/1
Bamako 204/1
Bambata 206/1
Bambata Cave 23/4
Bamberg 107/4, 134/1
Bambuk 81/3
Bamburg 154/1
Bampur 29/3
Ban Na Di 52/2
Banat 174/1,1 75/2, 178/1,1 78/2
Banawali 29/4
Bandar Abbas 118/1
Bandaranaike, Sirimavo 249, 249
Bandiagara 204/1
Bandung 234/2, 251/3
Bangka 119/2, 197/2
Bangkok 139/2, 211/1, 251/3, 281/4
Bangladesh
see also East Pakistan
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
creation 1972 249
democracy since 1972 268/1
flood danger 280/2
independence 1947 247/2
migration 1972 275/3
territorial disputes since 1947 249/3
Banjarmasin 65/3, 131/1,196/1
Bannockburn, Battle of (1314) 93, 93/4
Banpo 18-19, 19/4
Bantam 118/1
Bantu 23/4
Baode 31/3
Baoding 31/3
Baotou 254/1
Bar, Holy Roman Empire 153/2
Bar-sur-Aube 92/1, 100/1, 101
Barawa 118/1
Barbados 125/2, 127/2, 193/3, 247/3
Barbar 29/3
Barbaricum 47/3, 47/4
Barbarikon 53/1
Barca 21/3
Barcelona
500-1500 101/4, 102/1,105/2, 107/4
1500-1800 129/2, 132/3, 133/4, 134/1,
152/1, 156/1
1800-1900172/2,210/1
Barcelona, County of 92/1
Bardowick 74/2
Barents, William 116-17/1
Bargeroosterveld 21/3
Bari 67/1, 67/3, 101/4, 172/2
Barisal 280/2
Barletta 102/1, 103/2
Barnoul 223/3
Baroda 248/1
Baros 118/1, 119/2
Barranquilla, Colombia 227/1
Barth, Heinrich 204, 205/3
Barus 65/3, 196/1
Barygaza, northwest India 53/1
Basel 90/2, 107/4, 134/1,155/2
Bashadar 51/4
Bashkirs 148/2
Basil I, Byzantine emperor 66, 67/1
Basil II, Byzantine emperor 66, 96
Basotho 204/1
Basques 74/1
Basra 69/1, 13i/2
Basse-Yutz 21/4
Bassein 65/3
Bastar 195/3
Bastidas 120/1
Basutoland 206/1, 206/2
see also Lesotho
Bat Cave, North America 25/2
Bataan Death March 234/2
Batan Grande, Peru 34/2, 35/3, 84/1
Batavia
see also Jakarta
1500-1800 119/2, 131/1, 131/2
1880-1914 208/1
Second World War 234/2
Bath 79/4
Bathurst 208/1
Batjan Islands 118/1, 119/2
Baton Rouge 185/3
Batticaloa 118/1
Batu Elaya 52/2
Batu Islands 197/2
Batumi 223/3
Baudin, Nicholas 202/1
Bauske 158/1
Bavaria
500-1500 70/2, 71/4, 74/2, 75, 90/1, 91/3
1500-1800 146/1,152/1, 154/1, 156/1
1918-19 223/2
Bayana 144/2
Bayonne 102/1
Beakers 2J/2
Bear Paw Mountain, Battle of (1877) 183/4
Beam 155/3
Beam, County of 92/2, 93/5
Beaumaris 93/4
Beauvais 92/1
Beccan, Mesoamerica 84/2
Beehuanaland 206/1, 210/1
see also Botswana
Bedouin 206/1
Begho 81, 81/3
Behy Glenulra 21/3
Beidha 18/2
Beijing (Peking)
to AD 600 44/2
14th century 104/1
1644-1800 139
1800-1900198/1,211/1
20th century 225, 254/1 , 255/2, 274,
281/4
Beijing, Battle of (1949) 225/2
Beikthano 52/2, 53/1
Beira 130/1,208/1
Beirut 94/2
Beitang 198/1
Belarus 236/2, 238/2, 262/1, 263
see also Byelorussia
Belem 208/1
Belfast, Northern Ireland 210/1 , 232/1
Belfast, South Africa, Battle of (1900) 206/2
Belfort, Holy Land 94/2
Belgian Congo
see also Congo, Democratic Republic of;
Zaire
1700-1914 206/1 , 208/1 , 210/1
since 1945 257, 277/4
Belgica
500 bc-ad 400 54/1
Belgiea II
AD 200-900 74, 7-1/1
Belgium
see also Austrian Netherlands
colonies 1880-1939 206/1 , 208/1 , 246/1
First World War 217, 218, 218/1, 219/2,
220/1,220/2,221/4
France 1789-1815 166, 167/2
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2
industrialization 1830-1914 170/1,
171/2,171/3
insurrection 1830s 173
Second World War 232, 232/1, 233/2,
238/1
since 1945 233/3, 238/1,238/2, 272/1,
278/1
Belgorod 158/1
Belgrade
see also Singidunum
to AD 600 45/4
1000-1500 102/1
1500-1750 158/1
20th century 232/1
Belgrade, Treaty of (1739) 178/2
Belisarius 66
Belize
1770-1800130/1,190/1
20th century 226/1 , 246/2, 247/4, 275/3
Belkatohi 50/2
Bellinzona 147/3
Belo Horizonte, Brazil 227/1
Belonia 280/2
Belt Cave 18/1
Bemba 204/1
Benalcazar, Sebastian de 121, 121/4
Benares, northeast India
see also Varanasi
144/1, 144/2
Benediktbeuren 75/3
Benevento, Battle of (1266) 90/1
Benevento, Duchy of 74/2
Benfleet 79/4
Bengal
1211-1398 89/4
1500-1770 119/3, 131/1, 144/4, 145/3
1750-1914 194, 194/1, 194/2, 195/3, 196
since 1914 248/1,277/4
Benghazi 204/1
Benguela 204/1, 208/1
Benin
20th century 246/2, 247/4, 256/1 , 256/2,
277/3
500-1500 80/1,81,81/3
1500-1800 130/1, 137, 137/2
Berar 194/1 , 194/2, 248/1
Berber dynasties 88
Berbera 204/1
Berenice, Red Sea coast 52/1, 53
Berenike 30/1
Berezniki 223/3
Berg 154/1
Bergen 129/2
Bering Strait (Beringia) 24, 24/1
Berkyaruk 94
Berlin
e.1360 91/3
1500-1800 133/4, 134/1
1800-1900 173/3, 210/1
20th century 223/2, 232/1, 242/1, 245/1,
264/1
Berlin, Battle of (1806) 167/2
Berlin Blockade (Airlift) 244, 245/1
Berlin, Conference (1884-85) 206, 209
Berlin, Congress of (1878) 175, 178
Berlin, Treaty of (1878) 178-79/1
Berlin, Treaty of (1921) 220/2
Berlin Wall 236, 245/1
Bermuda 130/1, 208/1, 246/2, 247/4
Bern 90/2, 155/2
Berry 92/1, 93/5
Berwick 93/4, 158/1
Besancon 75/4, 134/1, 166/1
Bessarabia
20th century 221, 222/1,233/2
1683-1812 178/1, 180, 180/1
Betatakin 108/1
Bethlehem 44/1
Beziers 102/1
Beziers, County of 92/2
Beziers, Viscounty of 92/1
Bharhut 47/4
Bharukaccha 47/3
Bhatkal 118/1, 119/2, 130/1, 145/3
Bhimbetka 16/3, 18/1
Bhonsia's Lands 194/2
Bhutan 249/3, 268/1
Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali 249
Biafra 256/1, 257,277/4
Bibracte 21/4
Bicocca, Battle of (1522) 158/1, 159
Bidar 145/3
Bien Hoa 250/2
Bigo 82, 83/2
Bigorre, County of 92/2
Bihac 267/3
Bihar
1526-1765 144/1,144/4, 145/3
1756-1914194/1,195/3
1930s 248/1
Bijapur 145/3
Billiton 119/2, 196/1, 197/2
Bill of Rights (US) 268
Bilma 81/3, 204/1
Bintan Islands 118/1, 119/2
Bira 94/2
Birka 71/3, 78/2
Birmingham, England 210/1 , 232/1
Birni 81/3
Bisa 204/1
Biserta 146/1
Bisho 257/3
Biskupin 21/3
Bismarck, Count Otto von 177, 217
Bismarck Archipelago 197/2
Bithynia 54, 55/1
Bitorri Cave 22/2
Black Death 104-5, 106, 107, 107/4
Black Hole of Calcutta 194
Black Russia 151/5
Black Sea crisis (1853-54) 178
Blackfoot people 183/4
Blackwater Draw, North America 24/1, 25/2
Blaj 173/3, 175/4
Blanzee 74/2
Blenheim, Battle of (1704) 158/1,174/1
Blitz (1940-41) 232
Bloemfontein 257/3
Bloemfontein, Battle of (1900) 206/2
Blois 75/4, 92/1, 93/5, 155/3
Bluefish Caves 24/1
Bluff 203/3
Bo 31/3
Bobangi 204/1
Bobbio 75/3
Bobo-Dioulasso 81/3
Bodh Gaya 44/2
Boeotia 41/3, 41/4
Boer Voortrekkers 204/1, 205
Boer War
see South African (Boer) War
Bogota 122/2, 190/2, 227/1
Bohai 72/1,73,73/4
Bohemia
400-1000 70, 70, 70/2, 71, 71/4
1000-1500 90/1, 91/3, 106, 107
1500-1700 146/1, 147, 152/1, 153, 153/3,
154/1, 155, 156/1
1700-1919 174/1, 175/2, 175/3
Bohemia-Moravia, Protectorate of 230/2
Bohemian War (1618-20, 1621-23) 159/2
Bohemond 94/1
Bohol, Philippine Islands 197/2
Bolama 204/1
Bolivar, Simon 190/2, 191, 191
Bolivia
1700-1914 190/2, 191/3, 192/1,193,
210/1
1914-45 226/4, 227/1 , 229/3
since 1945 258/1,259/2, 259/3, 270/1
Bologna
500-900 74/2
1500-1800 128/1, 132/1,132/2, 133/4,
134/1
1831-49 172/2,173/3
Bolsheviks 222, 222/1 , 223/2
Bombay
20th centurv 274, 281/4
1500-1770 118/1, 119/2, 119/3, 130/1,
145/3
1800-1914 208/1,210/1
1930s 248/1
Bombona, Battle of (1822) 190/2
Bonaire 193/3, 247/3
Bonampak, Mesoamerica 84/2
Bonaparte, Joseph 167, 190-91
Bonaparte, Napoleon see Napoleon
Boomplaas 23/4
Bophuthatswana 257/3
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Bordeaux
to AD 600 45/4
500-1500 74/2, 102/1
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
French Revolution 1789-1793 166/1
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
population 1600-1914 132/2, 132/3,
133/4
Reformation 1526-1765 155/3
revolts 1618-80 156/1
trade c.1770 130/1
Borgholm, southern Sweden 158/1
Borgu 137/2
Borisov, Battle of (1812) 167/2
Bormio 147/3
Borneo
10,000 bc-ad 1000 26/1
to AD 500 19/4, 52/2
500-1500 63/3, 64/2, 65/3
1450-1800 116/2, 117/1, 119/2, 119/3,
131/1
1792-1914 196/1, 197/2, 208/1
Second World War 234/2, 235/3
Borno 136/1, 204/1, 205
Borobudur 62, 65
Borodino, Battle of (1812) 167/2
Borum Eshoj 21/3
Bosnia
1463-81 97/4
1500-1683 142/1, 146/1, 147
1683-1914 175, 175/2, 175/3, 178/1
since 1992 266/1, 267, 267/3
Bosnia-Herzegovina
20th century 217, 217/3, 264/1, 265,
267/3
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Federation of 265/3
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serb Republic of 265/3
Bosnian Civil War 264/1 , 265, 265/3, 266/1 ,
267, 267/3, 269/2
Bosnian Muslims 265, 265/3
Bosporos 67/3
Boston, USA 130/1,187/3, 210/1
Boston, USA, Battle of (1776) 165/3
Boston Tea Party 164
Bostra 55/1, 94/2
Botshabelo 257/3
Botswana
see also Bechuanaland
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
democracy since 1966 256/2, 268/1
education 1995 279/3
Human Development Index 1994 279/2
independence 1966 246/2, 256/1
migration 1960 275/3
Bouar 22/2
Bougainville 235/3
Boulogne 74/2
Bourbon, County of 92/1
Bourbon dynasty 123, 157, 190-91
Bourges
500-1500 75/3, 75/4, 102/1
1770-94134/1,166/1
Bourges, Viscounty of 92/1
Bouvine, Battle of (1214) 90/1
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1900) 199
Boxgrove, England 1 7/2
Boyaca, Battle of (1819) 190/2
Boyle, Robert 135
Brabant 103/3
Bradford, England 2J0/1
Brahminieal sites 52/2
Braila, Black Sea 158/1
Brandenburg
c.950-1360 90/1
1500-1785 146/1,152/1,153/3, 154/1,
157, 157/3
1815-71 177/4
Brandenburg-Prussia 157/3
Brandywine Creek, Battle of (1777) 165/3
Brasov see Kronstadt
Bratislava 264/1
see also Pressburg
Braunsberg 91/3
Brazil
1830-1914 192-93, 192/1,193
1914-45 22673, 226/4, 227, 227/1, 229/3
car ownership and production 1990s
282/1
computer ownership 283/3
ethnic composition 1990s 259/3
European colonialism 1500-1780 121/4,
122-23, 122/2, 123/3, 130/1
independence 1770-1830 190/1, 191,
191/3
manufacturing 258
migration 1918-98 275/3
population 1870-1914 210/1
slavery 1500-1880 126-27, 126/1, 127/2
trade 1870-1914 208/1
trade since 1914 258/1,273/3
Breda, Siege of (1625) 158/1
Breiddin 21/4
Breisach 159/2
Breisgau 153/2, 174/1
Breitenfeld, Battles of (1631, 1642) 151/2,
153/3,15671,159/2
Bremen
500-1500 102/1, 105/2, 107/4
1500-1750 129/2, 154/1
1815-71177/4
20th century 223/2, 232/1
Brescia 103/2, 154/1, 172/2
Breslau
see also Vratislavia; Wroclaw
c. 1360 91/3
c.1770 134/1
1800-1900 210/1
Brest 166/1, 208/1,232/1
Brest-Litovsk 181/3
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918) 219,
222
Bretons
200-900 57/4, 74/1
Bretton Woods Conference (see United
Nations Monetary and Financial
Conference)
Brezhnev, Leonid 236
Bridgnorth 79/4
Brihuega, Battle of (1710) 174/1
Brindisi 67/3
Brisbane 202/1
Bristol
c.1300 93/4, 102/1
1650-1800 129/2, 130/1, 133/4
1800-1900 210/1
Britain see Great Britain
British Columbia 189, 189/3
British East Africa 206/1 , 208/1 , 210/1
British Guiana
see a(so Guyana
1500-1780 127/2
1700-1914 192, 192/1,208/1,210/1
British Honduras 192, 193/3, 208/1
British New Guinea 197/2
British North America Act (1867) 189
British North Borneo 197/2
British Somaliland 206/1,208/1,210/1
British Virgin Islands 247/3
Brittany 74/2, 92/1, 93/5, 16671
Brno see Briinn
Broederstroom 23/4
Broken Mammoth 24/1
Bromsebro, Treaty of (1645) 150-51
Bronze Age 20-21, 21/3, 36, 50/1
Bruges 75/4, 102, 10671, 107/4
Brumath 74/2
Brunei
1200-1450 65/3
c.1770 131/1
1792-1914 196/1, 197/2, 208/1,211/1
Second World War 1939-45 235/3
since 1945 247/4, 250/1,251/3, 272/2,
279/2
Briinn 173/3
see also Brno
1450-1750 159/2
1848-49175/4
Brunner, Thomas 202/1
Brunswick 91/3, 102/1 , 106/1 , 1 77/4
Brussels
1470-1800 103/3, 128/1, 132/3, 133/4
1800-1900172/2,210/1
Bryansk 158/1
Brzesc Kujawski 20/1
Bucharest
20th century 232/1, 264/1
1800-1900 173/3, 175/4, 210/1
Bucharest, Treaty of (1812) 178-79/1
Bucharest, Treaty of (1915) 178-79/1
Buckingham 79/4
Buda
see also Budapest
1200-1500 98/1,98/2, 107/4
c.1770 134/1
1848-49 1 73/3, 1 75/4, 210/1
Budapest
see also Buda; Pest
since 1914 223/2, 232/1,264/1
Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) 44
Buddhism
to AD 600 44-45, 44/1 , 44/2, 47, 47/4,
52/2, 53
500-1500 62-63, 62/1, 63/3, 73, 73/4, 86,
86
1917-98 269/2
20th century 248, 249
Buenos Aires
1500-1780 122/2, 130/1
1800-1914 20671,210/1
since 1914 227/1,274
Buffalo, USA 187/3
Buganda 136/1, 204/1, 205, 20671
Bugey 152/1,153/2
Bugia 146/1
Buhen 30, 30/1, 37/2
Bukhara
600 BC-AD 500 47/4, 53/1
500-1500 69/1,98/1, 99, 104/1
1514-1639 142/2
Bukharin, Nikolai 223
Bukovina 174/1, 175/2
Bulgaria
500-1500 97/3, 97/4, 102/1
1500-1683 142/1,146/1
1683-1914171/3,17671
1945-89 23671 , 238/2, 244
First World War 216/2, 217, 217/3, 218,
218/1,220/1,220/2
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
revolutionary activity 1923 223/2
Second World War 232/1 , 233/2
since 1989 264, 264/1, 265, 265/2
Bulgarian Empire
893-1016 66/2
Bulgars
500-1500 62/1, 66, 76-77, 77/3,
78/2
Bull Run, Battles of (1861, 1862) 184, 185/3
Buna 234/2, 235/3
Bundelkhand 194/1, 194/2, 195/3
Bundu 204/1
Bunker Hill, Battle of (1775) 165/3
Bunyoro
500-1500 82, 82/1
1840-98 204/1, 205, 206/1
Burdigala 54/1, 55/2
Bure 81/3
Burgos 102/1, 231/3
Burgundians 56, 5671, 56/2, 57, 57/3, 74,
74/1
Burgundy 74, 74/2, 106/1
Burgundy, County of 90/1 , 92/1
Burgundy, Duchy of 92/1, 93/5
Burgundy, Kingdom of 90/1 , 92/1
Burhanpur 144/1,144/2, 145/3
Burke, Robert O'Hara 202/1
Burkina Faso 246/2, 256/1 , 256/2, 278/1
Burma (Myanmar)
750-1500 62/1,63/3
1500-1790 118/1
China 1800-1911 199/2
democracy since 1914 268/1
European colonialism 1600-1920 194,
195/3, 196, 197, 197/2
independence 1948 247/2,250/1
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
Second World War 234/1 , 234/2, 235,
235/3
trade 1870-1914 208/1
trade since 1920s 251/3
Burma Railway 234/2
Burmese kingdoms
500-1500 64-65
Burton, Sir Richard Francis 205/3
Bum 119/2, 196/1, 197/2
Burundi
1500-1800 13671
c. 1840 204/1
20th century 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 270/2,
278/1
Buryats 148/2
Burzahom 19/3
Bush Barrow 21/3
Bush, George W. 243
Buton Islands 119/2
Butow 157/3
Butri 137/2
Buttington 79/4
Butua 130/1
Butung Islands 196/1, 197/2
Biitzow 134/1
Buxar, Battle of (1764) 194/1
Buyids 69/3, 88, 8671
Byblos 30, 30/1 , 37/2, 37/3, 38, 38/3
Byelorussia 71/4
see also Belarus
Bylany 20/1
Byzantine Empire
527-1025 66-67
1025-1453 96-97, 9671, 97/3
Asian nomads 400-600 76, 76/1, 76/2
crusades 1095-1291 94/1,94/2, 95, 95/3
and Islamic world 630-1400 68, 68/1,
69/3, 88, 88/1, 88/3, 89/5
religion 750-1450 62/1
Slavic states 700-1000 70, 71/3, 71/4
Byzantium
see also Constantinople
527-1025 67/4
750-550 BC 40/2
c.1400 106/1
Caballo Muerto 34/1
Cabinda 208/1 , 210/1 , 256/1
Cabot, John 116/1, 117
Cabot, Sebastian 116/1, 117, 121, 121/4
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez 116-17/1
Cacaxtla 85/3
Cadiz
500-1500 105/2, 107/4
1500-1800 129/2, 130/1,131/2, 133/4
1800-1914 172/2, 208/1
Caen 156/1, 166/1,232/1
Caesar, Julius, Roman emperor 54
Caesarea, Anatolia 55/1, 67/3
Caesarea, Holy Land 45/4, 55/1 , 67/1 , 94/2
Caesarea, North Africa 54/1 , 55/2
Cagliari, Sardinia 38/3, 134/1, 158/1
Cahokia 108, 109/3
Cahors 75/4, 134/1
Cahuachi, Peru 34, 34/2
Cai Ngai 25672
Caicos Islands 193/3
Caille, Rene 205/3
Cairo
see also Al Fustat
500-1500 81/3, 83/2, 104/1
1500-1800 137
1990s 281/4
Cairo Geniza 100
Cajamarca, Peru 34/1, 35/3, 110/1, 121,
121/4
Cajamarquilla, Peru 35/3
Calabozo, Battle of (1818) 190/2
Calais 147/2, 155/3, 232/1
Calais, Siege of (1558) 158/1
Calakmul, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Calatafimi, Battle of (1860) 176/2
Calcutta
1500-1770 131/1, 131/2, 145/3
1800-1900 194,211/1
20th century 274, 280/2, 281/4
Cali, Colombia 227/1
Calicut
500-1500 83/2, 104/1
1500-1790 117/1, 118, 118/1, 139, 139/2,
145/3
California 182, 182/1, 184, 184/2, 193/2
Califomian Trail 183/3
Calixtlahuaca 85/3
Callao 190/2
Callipolis 7671
Caloocan 251/3
Calvin, John 155
Calvinism 154/1, 155
Camacha 67/3
Cambay, India 83/2, 104/1, 118/1
Cambodia
see also Khmer Empire; Khmers
1200-1500 63/3, 65/3
1790-191419671,197/2
famine 1975-79 277/4
independence 1954 247/2, 250/1
trade since 1920s 251/3
United Nations operation 1991-93 266/1 ,
267
urban population 1990s 251/3
US intervention 1970-73 242/1
Vietnam War 250/2, 251
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Cambrai 103/3
Cambridge, England 79/3, 134/1, 135/2
Cambyses, King of Persia 42
Camden, Battle of (1780) 165/3
Camerino 134/1, 154/1
Cameron, Verney Lovett 205/3
Cameroon
see also Kamerun
246/2, 247/4, 256/1 , 256/2, 277/3
Campa 47/3
Camulodunum 21/4
Can Hasan 19/3
Canada
800-1100 78/1
1763-1914 188-89
American War of Independence 1776-83
165
car ownership and production 1990s
282/1
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
computer ownership 283/3
economy since 1945 272/1
European colonization 1600-1800
124-25, 125/3, 130/1
European colonization 1870-1914 208/1 ,
209
female suffrage 270/J
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/1,
229/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
population 1800-1914 210/1, 211
standard of living since 1945 278
Canary Islands 1 30/1 , 204/1 , 206/1 , 246/2
Cancha Rayada, Battle of (1818) 190/2
Candia, Crete 67/1,67/3, 95/4, 158/1
Cannae, Battle of (216 bc) 54
Cannanore 118/1
Cano, Juan Sebastian del 116-17/1, 116/2
Canterbury 91/3
Canton
see also Guangzhou
1762-1911 131/1, 196, 198
Canute see Cnut
Canyon de Chelly 108/1
Canyon de Chelly, Battle of (1864) 183/4
Cao Rong people 31/3
Cape Breton Island 188/1
Cape Coast Castle 137, 137/2
Cape Colony 204, 204/1, 206, 206/2, 210/1
Cape Dorset, North America 25/2
Cape of Good Hope 116, 118, 131/2
Cape Town 130/1, 137, 208/1, 257/3
Cape Verde Islands 130/1
Capeletti 22/2
Capet, Hugh 92
Capetian kings 92, 92/1 , 93
Caporetto, Battle of (1917) 218/1, 219
Cappadocia 55/1
Capua 74/2
Carabobo, Battle of (1821) 190/2
Caracas 122/1, 122/2, 190/2, 227/1
Caracol, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Carales 54/1
Carcassonne 92/1, 92/2, 102/1
Carchemish 37/2
Cardal, Andes 34/1
Cardiff 93/4
Carelia 149, 150/1
Caribbean
see also individual islands
European colonization 1450-1780 116/1,
117, 120,120/1,122/1
European colonization 1600-1800
124-25, 125/2, 130-31
independence 1700-1830 190-91
post-independence 1830-1914 192-93,
193/3
since 1914 227/2, 247, 247/3
slavery 1500-1880 126, 126/1
Carinthia 70/2, 71/4, 74/2, 90/1
Carlat, Viscounty of 92/2, 92/3
Carlisle 93/4
Carlowitz, Treaty of (1699) 178, 178-79/1,
178/2
Carmarthen 93/4
Carmona, Antonio de Fragoso 231/4
Carnatic 194/1, 194/2
Carniola 90/1
Carnuntum 45/4, 54/1
Carol II, King of Romania 231/4
Caroline Islands
c.1770 131/1
1870-1914 197/2
20th century 201, 234/2, 235/3, 246/2
Carolingian Empire 71/3, 74-75, 78/2,
92
Carolingian Renaissance 75, 75/3
Carpi, Battle of (1701) 174/1
Carranza, Venustiano 226
Carrickfergus 93/4
Cars since 1945 282, 282/1
Cartagena, Colombia 122/1, 122/2
Cartagena, Spain 158/1
Carter, Jimmy 242
Carthage
1st millennium bc 23, 23/3
barbarian invasions AD 100-500 57/3
Islamic conquest 630-1000 68/1
Phoenicians 800-550 bc 38-39, 38/3,
40/2
religion to ad 600 45/4
Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54, 54/1,
55/2
Cartier, Jacques 116/1, 117
Casa Grande, North America 108/1
Casas Grandes, North America 108, 108/1
Casper, North America 25/2
Caspia 42/1
Cassander 43
Cassel 75/4, 135/2
Castel del Monte 90/J
Castelfidardo, Battle of (1860) 176/2
Castile
1100-1500 92/2, 101/4, 106, 106/1,107/3
1500-1600 146, 146/1
crusades 1095-99 94/1
Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152/1
religion 750-1450 62/1
urbanization c.1300 102/1
Castillon, Battle of (1453) 10672
Castro, Fidel 259
Cat Island 193/3
Qatal Hoyiik 19/3
Catalonia
900-1300 92/1, 92/2, 92/3, 93
1500-1653 152/1, 153, 156, 156/1
Catania, Sicily 102/1, 133/4, 134/1, 158/1
Cateau-Cambresis, Treaty of (1559) 147
Catherine de Medici 155
Catherine II (the Great), Empress of Russia
149
Catholic Church 62, 63/2, 106-7, 154-55,
269, 269/2, 269/3
Cavour, Camillo Benso, Conte di 176
Cawnpore 194/2
Cayenne 122/2, 130/1
Cayman Islands 247/3
Qayonii 18/2, 19/3
Ceausescu, Nicolae 264, 264/1
Cebu 251/3
Celebes
c.3000 bc 19/4
1500-1790 118/1,119/2, 119/3
1792-1914196/1,197/2
Second World War 234/2
Celts 21, 21/4
Cemenelum 54/1
Cempoala, New Spain 120/3
Central African Republic 246/2, 256/1 ,
256/2,266/1,277/3
Central America see Latin America
Central Asia
6000 bc-ad 500 50-51, 52, 52-53/1
break-up of the Soviet Union since 1989
263
Russia 1795-1914 180, 180/1
Tang China 618-907 72/1
Central Indian Agency 248/1
Central Powers 218-19
Central Provinces, India 195/3, 248/1
Central Soviet Area 224/1
Cephalonia 67/1
Ceram 119/2, 196/1, 197/2
Cerignola, Battle of (1503) 158/1
Cerne 23/3
Cernjachov Culture 56, 5672
Cerro Baul, Peru 35/3
Cerro Blanco, Peru 34/1 , 34/2
Cerro de las Mesas, Mesoamerica 32/2
Cerro El Plomo 110/1
Cerro Mejia, Peru 35/3
Cerro Sechin, Peru 34, 34/1
Cerro Vicus, Peru 34/2
Cerros, Mesoamerica 84/2
Cervera, northeast Spain 134/1
Cesena 103/2
Ceuta 158/1, 204, 204/1
Ceylon
see also Sri Lanka
500-1500 62/1, 83/2
European colonization 1500-1800 118,
118/1,119/2, 131/1,145/3
European colonization 1798-1914 194/1,
194/2, 208/1
since 1914 229/3, 249
Zheng He voyages 1405-33 139/2
Chablais 147/3, 155/2
Chacabuco, Battle of (1817) 190/2
Chaco Canyon 108/1 , 108/2
Chad
1880-39 206/1
since 1939 2462, 25671 , 25672, 270/2
Chaeronea, Battle of (338 bc) 43
Chagatai Horde 62/1
Chaghatai Khanate 89, 89/5, 99, 99/3
Chagos Islands 247/2
Chakri monarchy 196, 196/1, 197
Chalcatzingo, Mesoamerica 32/1
Chalcedon 45/4
Chalchuapa, Mesoamerica 32/1
Chalcidice 41/4
Chalcis 40, 40/2
Chaldean (Neo— Babylonian) Empire 39
Chaldiran, Battle of (1514) 142/2, 143, 143/1
Chalon-sur-Sa6ne 75/4
Chalons 92/1
Cham 64/2
Champa 63/3, 64, 64/1,64/2, 65, 65/3
Champagne 93/5, 100/1, 101
Chan Chan, Peru 84, 84/1
Chancay, Peru 84/1
Chancellor, Richard 116-17/1
Chancellorsville, Battle of (1863) 1S5/3
Chandernagore 145/3
Chandragupta Maurya, Indian emperor 43,
46
Chang' an, northern China
to AD 600 44/2, 49/3, 53/1
618-907 72/1,72/2,73
Changchun 254/1 , 255/2, 255/3
Changchun, Battle of (1948) 225/2
Changning 31/3
Changsha
1368-1644 138/1
1800-1911 199/2, 199/4
since 1914 254/1,255/3
Changshu 139/2
Channel Islands 93/5
Chanquillo, Peru 34/1 , 34/2
Chansen 53/1
Chaoge 31/3
Chaoge, Battle of (e.1050 bc) 31
Chapultepec 85/3
Charlemagne 74/2, 75
Charles, Archduke of Austria 174
Charles I, King of England, Scotland and
Ireland 156, 156
Charles II (the Bald) 74/2, 75
Charles IV, King of Luxembourg 90
Charles IV, King of Spain 167
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 147,
152-53, 153/2, 155
Charles VI of Austria 174
Charles VIII, King of France 158
Charles X, King of France 173
Charles X, King of Sweden 151
Charles XII, King of Sweden 149, 151
Charles of Anjou 93/5
Charles Albert, King of Piedmont-Sardinia
176
Charles Martel 75
Charleston 185/3
Charolais 152/1, 153/2
Charsada 53/1
Chartists 173
Chartres 100/2
Chartres, County of 93/5
Chassey 20/1
Chateau Thierry, Battle of (1918) 219/2
Chatham Islands 2671, 27
Chattanooga, Battle of (1863) 185/3
Chaul 118/1
Chavin culture 25, 25/4, 34/1 , 35
Chavin de Huantar 25, 25/4, 34, 34/1
Chechenia 180, 180/1, 263, 263/2
Chelles 75/3
Chelyabinsk, central Soviet Union 223/3,
237, 237/3
Chen-La 64, 64/1,64/2, 65
Chengdu
to AD 600 44/2
1800-1911 J99/4
since 1945 25471, 255/2, 255/3
Chenziyai 19/4
Cheras 4671 , 4672, 53/1
Cherkessia 180, 180/1
Chernigov 71/4, 149, 18J/3, 222/1
Chernobyl disaster 237, 237/3, 280
Chernomyrdin, Viktor 263
Cherokee 124/1, 164
Cherso 230/1
Cherson
see also Kherson
500-1100 67/1, 67/3, 71/3, 78/2
1928-39 223/3
Chertomlyk 51/4
Ches-tyi-yag 50/2
Chesowanja 1671
Chester 79/4, 93/4
Chevdar, southeast Europe 20/1
Cheyenne 183/4
Chezy 79/3
Chiang Kai-shek 224-25, 234, 235
Chiao-Chih 64, 64/1,65
Chiapa de Corzo, Mesoamerica 32/1
Chiavenna 155/2
Chiba 252/1
Chiboha culture 122/2
Chicago 187/3, 210/1, 281/4
Chicama 34/1
Chichen Itza 84, 84/2, 85, 85/3, 111/3
Chichester 79/4
Chichimecs 111, 111/3, 122/1
Chickamauga, Battle of (1863) 185/3
Chiclayo 34/1
Chiengmai 64, 65/3
Chihuahua 122/1,183/3
Chilca, South America 25/4
Childeric 74, 74/1
Chile
1914-45 226/3, 22674, 227/1, 229/3
democracy since 1914 268
distribution of wealth since 1945 278
ethnic composition 1990s 259/3
exports 1990s 258/1
female suffrage 270/1
independence struggles 1770-1830
190/1, 190/2, 191/3
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
manufacturing 1945-80 258
military government 1973-89 259
population 1800-1914 210/1
post independence 1830-1914 192/1,
193
slavery 1500-1880 J27/2
Spanish colonization 1492-1550 121,
12V4
trade 1870-1914 208/1
US intervention since 1945 242/1 , 245/1 ,
259/2
Chilecito, South America 110/1
Chilembwe 1915 206/1
Chimu culture 84, 84, 84/1
China
to 10,000 bc 17/2
3000 BC-AD 220 30-31, 48-49
907-1600 86-87
1911-49 224-25,224/1
since 1949 254-55
agriculture 12,000 bc-ad 500 18-19
Black Death 1347-52 104/1, 105
car ownership and production 1990s
282, 282/1
civil war 1945-49 225/2
Cold War 1947-91 244, 244/2
European colonialism 1500-1790 118,
118/1, 119, 119/2, 119/3, 131/1
European colonialism 1790-1914 196,
209
European exploration 1450-1600 116,
117/1
famine 1959-61 277/4
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
and India since 1947 249, 249/3
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
Japan 1867-1922 200/3, 201
Japan 1931^15 234, 234/1,234/2, 235,
235/3
Japan 1995 253/3
Manchu Qjng dynasty 1644-1911 139,
198-99
migration 1500-1914 211/2
migration 1918-98 275/3
Ming period 1368-1644 138-39
Mongol Empire 1207-1370 98, 98/1, 99
nomad invasions 800 bc-ad 100 51, 5J/4
population 1800-1900 211/1
religion to AD 600 44/1 , 44/2, 45
religion 600-1500 62, 62/1, 63/3
Russia 1795-1914 180/1
Soviet Union 1970s 236/2
Tang period 618-907 72-73
Tibet since 1950 269/2
trade 150 bc-ad 500 52, 53/1
trade 1980 273/3
Chinggis (Genghis) Khan 98-99, 98/1
Chinju-mok 87/3
Chinon 75/4
Chios 67/1, 97/3, 142/1
Chippenham 79/3
Chiquihuitillo 85/4
Chiquitoy 35/3
Chiquitov Viejo 110/1
Chisbury' 79/4
Chisholm Trail 183/3
Chita 223/3
Chitor, Battle of (1568) 144/1
Chittagong 139/2
Choga Mami 19/3
Chola 64/2, 65
Cholas 4671, 46/2, 53/1
Cholula 85/4, 120/3
Ch'ongju-mok 87/3
Chongoyape 34/1
Chongqing
1800-1911 199/2, 199/4, 211/1
since 1945 254/1 , 255/2, 255/3
Chongyang 31/3
Chonju-mok 87/3
Choshi 141/2
Chotanagpur 194/1,194/2, 195/3
Chotuna, Peru 84/1
Christ see Jesus Christ
Christchurch, New Zealand 202/1
Christianity
see also individual denominations
to AD 600 44/1 , 45, 45/4, 54, 55
600-1500 62, 62/1, 63, 63/2
Africa 1800-80 137, 205, 205/2
Africa 1880-1939 207
Black Death 1347-52 105
Byzantine Empire 527-1025 66-67
Carolingian dynasty 700-900 75, 75/3
crusades 1095-1291 94-95
Ethiopia 500-1880 82, 205
Holy Roman Empire 962-1356 91
India since 1920 248
Japan 1500-1790 118
Middle East since 1945 260/1
Muslim lands 13th century 89
religious conflict since 1917 269/2
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Slavic states 700-1000 71
Christiansand, Norway 158/1
Christiansborg, Gold Coast 137/2
Christmas Island 247/2
Chu state 48/1
Chueuito 110/1
Chukchi 180/1
Chunar 144/1
Ch'ungju-mok 87/3
Chuquibamba, Peru 35/3
Chur 75/3
Churchill, Winston S 243
Chuzhou 199/4
giftlik 18/2
Cilicia 42/1, 54,55/:
Cilician Armenia 94/2, 95/3, 96/1,96/2
Cilvituk 85/3
Cimmerians 51, 51/4, 53/1
Cincinnati 187/3, 210/1
CIS .see Commonwealth of Independent
States
Cishan 18-19, 19/4
Ciskei 257/3
Ciudad Rodrigo, Battle of (1706) 174/1
Cividale 74/2, 75/3
Civil Rights movement 240, 241/3
Cixian 31/3
Clapperton, Hugh 205/3
Clark, William 182, 183/3
Claudiopolis 67/3
Claudius I 55
Clemenceau, Georges 220
Clement V, Pope 106
Cleveland 187/3, 210/1
Cleves 152/1, 154/1
Olive, Robert 194
Clovis I, King of Franks 74, 74/1
Clovis, North America 24/1
Cluj see Kolozsvar
Cnut II 79
Co Loa, southern China 53/1
Coapexco, Mesoamerica 32/1
Coatlicamac 111/3
Coba 33/4, 84/2
Coblenz 767:
Cochabamba, Peru 35/3
Cochin China
1790-1914 197/2
Cochin, southwest India 117/1, 118, 118/1,
119/2, 145/3
Cocos Islands 247/2
Coimbra, Portugal 134/1
Cojumatlan, Mexico 85/4
Cold Harbour, Battle of (1864) 185/3
Cold War 242-43, 244-45, 245/1, 247, 257,
267
Colenso, Battle of (1899) 206/2
Cologne
to AD 600 45/4
500-1500 74/2, 75/3, 90/1, 91/3, 102/1,
107/4
1770-1800133/4,134/1
1800-1900 210/1
Colombia
1492-1780 121, J22/2, 123, 127/2
1700-1914 190/2, 192/1, 193, 193/3,
210/1
1914-45 22673, 226/4, 227/1,229/3
since 1945 25S, 258/1, 259/3, 275/3
Colombo, Cevlon 118/1, 119/2, 145/3, 208/1
Colon 208/1
Colonea 67/1,67/3
Colonia Agrippina 54/1 , 55/2
Colorado 182, 182/1,184/2
Columbia, South Carolina 185/3
Columbus, Christopher 116/1, 117, 120,
120/1
Columbus, Ohio 187/3
Comalcalco, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
COMECON see Council for Mutual Economic
Assistance
COMINTERN see Communist International
Commendah J37/2
Comminges, County of 92/2
Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) 179
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
262/1,263
Commonwealth of Nations 247, 247/3,
247/4
Communist International (COMINTERN)
224
Como 103/2
Comoros (Comoro Islands) 83/2, 206/1,
246/2, 256/1
Compiegne 74/2
Compromise of 1850 184
Computers 283, 283/3
Conception, Chile, Battle of (1817) 190/2
Conchopatra, Peru 35/3
Conde 79/3
Confederate States of America 184-85,
184/2, 185/3
Confederation of the Rhine 177
Confucianism
to AD 600 44/1, 45
600-1644 62, 62/1,63/3, 86, 138
1790-1914 197
1917-98 269/2
Confucius (Rung Fu Tzu) 45, 49
Congo
democracy since 1960 256/2
education 1995 279/3
independence 1960 246/2, 256/1
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
United Nations operation 1960-64 266/1,
267
Congo, Democratic Republic of
see also Belgian Congo; Zaire
democracy since 1960 256/2
Gross National Product 1995 278/1
Human Development Index 1994 279/2
independence 1960 256/1, 257
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
Connecticut 182/1
Constance 75/3
Constance, Council of (1414-18) 106
Constantia 67/3
Constantine, Roman emperor 45/4, 55,
66
Constantinople
see also Byzantium
to AD 600 45/4, 52/1
1800-1900 210/1
Asian nomads 400-955 76/1, 76/2, 77,
77/4
Black Death 1347-52 105, 105/2
Byzantine Empire 527-1025 66, 67, 67/1,
67/3, 67/4
crusades 1095-1291 94/1, 95, 96, 9672
Genoese colony 1100-1300 101/4
Islamic conquests 630-1451 68, 68/1,97,
97
population 1000-1500 102, 102/1
revolts 1618-80 15671
Slavic trade 700-1000 71/3
trade routes 14th century 104/1
Viking traders 800-1100 78/2
Constantinople, Latin Empire of 95, 95/5,
96, 9672
Constantinople, Treaty of (1739) 1 7872
Constitutional Act (1791) 188
Conwy 93/4
Cook Islands 246/2, 247/4
Cook, James 202, 202/1
Coorg 194/1 , 194/2
Copan, Mesoamerica 32/1 , 33/4, 84/2
Copenhagen
1650-1800 129/2, 132/3, 133/4, 134/1
1800-1900 210/1
1990s 281/4
Copernicus, Nicolaus 134
Coral Sea, Battle of the (1942) 234/2
Corbeny 74/2
Corbie 75/3
Corcyra 40/2
Corded Ware 21/2
Cordilleran ice sheet 24/1
Cordoba, Argentina 227/1
Cordoba (Corduba), Spain
45/4, 54/1, 55/2, 102, 102/1, 107/4, 133/4
Corinth
see also Kdrinthos
40, 40/2, 45/4, 67/1
Corinthus 54/1, 55/2
Cork 133/4
Coro, South America 121/4
Coromandel Coast 118/1
Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de 120/2, 121
Corregidor 234/2
Corsica
to AD 500 38/3, 54, 54/1, 55/2, 55/3
500-1500 101, 101/4, 105/2
1500-1800 133/4, 146/1,147/3, 152/1,
154/1
181517671
since 1914 220/1 , 232/1 , 233/2
Cortaillod, western Europe 20/1
Cortenuova, Battle of (1237) 90/1
Cortes, Hernan 11671, 117, 120, 120/2,
120/3, 121
Cortona 103/2
Corvey 74/2, 75/3
Cossacks
20th century 222/1
1462-1795 148, 148/1, 149/3, 156, 15671,
159/2
Costa Rica
1830-1910 193/3
1914-45 226/4, 227/1 , 227/2, 229/3
1990s 258/1 , 259/3, 274/1 , 279/2
Cotyaeum 67/3
Coucy, County of 92/1
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
(COMECON) 236, 23671, 238/2
Counter-Reformation 154-55
Courland 146/1, 150, 150/1, 151/4, 151/5,
154/1
Courtrai 79/3
Coventry 102/1, 232/1
Covilhao, Pero de 116-17/1
Cowpens, Battle of (1781) 165/3
Coxcatlan Cave, Mesoamerica 24/3
Cozumel Island 85/3
Cravant, Battle of (1423) 106/2
Crecv, Battle of (1346) 106/2
Crema 103/2
Cremona 103/2
Creole 190
Crete
2000-800 BC 36, 3671 ,37/3, 38/3
1350-1500 106/1
1500-1600 146/1
Black Death 1347-52 105/2
Byzantine Empire 527-1360 67/1, 67/3,
97/3
crusades 1095-1291 95/4, 95/5
First World War 21672, 217/3
Ottoman Empire 1500-1923 142/1, 178/1
Roman Empire 500 bo-ad 400 54-55/1,
55/2, 55/3
Second World War 232/1 , 233/2
trade 950-1300 101/4
Criccieth 93/4
Cricklade 79/4
Crimea
1347-52 104/1
1462-1795 149/3
since 1991262/1,263
Crimea, Khanate of
1307-1683 97/4, 143/1, 146/1
1683-1783 179/1
Crimean War (1853-56) 178
Croatia
1000-1500 71/4, 96/1
1500-1700 142/1, 146/1, 147, 153/3
1683-1914 175/2,178/1
Second World War 233/2
since 1989 264/1 ,265, 265/3, 266/1 ,
267/3
Croats 175/3, 265/3, 267/3
Croesus, King of Lydia 42
Cromwell, Oliver 156, 156
Croquants 156, 156/1
Crow 183/4
Crusader States 88/3, 89/5, 94-95, 101,
101/4
Crusades 62, 94-95, 96
Ctesiphon 52/1, 69/1
Cuba
1830-1914 192, 193, 193/3
1914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/2, 229/3
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 244, 245/1,
245/3
democracy since 1914 268/1
education 1995 279/3
exports 1990s 258/1
migration 1918-98 275/3
slavery 1500-1880 127, 127/2
Spanish colonization 1492-1780 120,
120/1,120/2, 122/1, 123, 125/2, 130/1
Spanish colonization 1770-1830 190/1,
191/3
urban population 1920-50 227/1
US intervention since 1945 242/1, 243,
259/2
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) 236, 244, 245/1,
245/3
Ciieuta 190/2
Culhuacan 85/3
Culiacan 122/1
Culpeper, USA 185/3
Cultural Revolution (1966-72) 254
Cumae 40/2
Cumans 88/1, 88/3
Cupisnique 25/4, 34/1
Curacao
1492-1770 J20/1, 125, 125/2, 130/1
1830-1910 193/3
1945-98 247/3
Cuttack 139/2, 144/1,144/2, 145/3
Cuzco, Peru
1400-1540 110, 110/1, 110/2
1492-1780 121, 121/4, 122/2
Cyme 42/1
Cypriot Civil War (1964- ) 266, 267,
267/2
Cyprus
' 2686-600 BG 30/1 , 36/1 ,37/3, 38/3
1500-1600 14671
1914-1945 219/1 , 221/3, 232/1 , 233/2
Achaemenid Empire 600-400 BC 42-43,
42/1,42/3
Black Death 1347-52 105/2
Byzantine Empire 527-1025 67/1 , 67/3
Crusader States 1100-1350 89/5, 101,
101/4
crusades 1095-1291 94/2, 95/4, 95/5
Holv Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 55/1,
55/2, 55/3
Ottoman Empire 1500-1683 142/1
since 1945 246/2, 247/4, 26671, 26671,
267, 267/2, 273/3
Cvrenaica
' 500 BC-AD 400 54-55/1, 55/3
1500-1683 142/1
1683-1912 178/1
Second World War 232/1
Cvrene 23/3, 40/2, 45/4, 54/1
Cyril 71
Cyrus the Great, King of Persia 42
Czech Republic 264/1, 265, 265/2
Czechoslovakia
see also Czech Republic; Slovakia
1914-39 220/2, 221, 221/4, 223/2, 228/2
1939-45 230/2, 232/1 , 233/3
1945-89 236, 238/2, 244, 245/1,264
since 1989 264, 264/1, 265
Czechs
800-1000 70/2
1900175/3
Da Nang 131/1 , 197/2, 250/2
Dabarkot 29/4
Dabhol 83/2
Dacca 144/1,144/2, 145/3, 211/1
Dacia 54-55/1, 55
Dacians 21/4
Dadu 98/1
Dagestan 143/1 , 1 79/1 , 1 79/3, 263/2
Dagu 138/1, 198/1
Dahae 51/4, 53/1
Dahomey 13671 , 137, 137/2, 204/1 , 206/1
Dahshur 37/2
Dahushan 225/2
Dai Viet 64, 64/2, 65/3
Dailam 88/2
Daima 22/2, 23/3
Dainzu, Mesoamerica 32/2
Daivuan 31/3
Dak'hla Oasis 81/3, 83/2
Dakota 184/2
Dali 224/1
Dali, Battle of (751) 72/1, 73
Dali state 87/2
Dalian 199/2, 254/1,255/2, 255/3
Dalmatia 54/1, 142/1, 174/1
Daman 118/1, 119/2, 145/3, 249/3
Damar 196/1
Damascus
to AD 600 37/2, 42/3, 45/4
1095-1500 94, 94/2, 95/3, 98/1,101/4,
104/1
Damietta 94/2, 95/3, 95/5
Dampier, William 202/1
Dandankan, Battle of (1040) 88, 88/1
Dandong 199/2
Danebury 21/4
Danelaw 79
Dang people 31/3
Danger Cave, North America 25/2
Danish Antilles 127/2
Danishmendids 94/1
Danzig
see also Gdansk
1350-1500 91/3, 107/4
1450-1750 128/1.129/2, 132/2, 132/3,
133/4, 158/1
since 1914 220, 220/2
Daoism 44/1, 45, 62-63, 62/1, 63/3
Darabakh 179/3
Darband 7872
Dardanelles, Battle of (1915) 218/1
Darfur 136/1,204/1
Darien, Colombia 120
Darion, northwest Europe 20/1
Darius I, King of Persia 40-41, 42-43,
42-43/1
Darius III, King of Persia 43
Dartmoor Reaves 21/3
Darwin, Australia 208/1
Dasapura 47/3
Dashly 50/1
Datong 199/4
Dauphine 90/1, 93/5
Davao 234/2, 251/3
David, King of Israel 45 45/3
Davis, John 11671, 117
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Dawenkou 19/4
Daxi 19/4
Daybul 83/2, 104/1
Dayton Peace Accord see Bosnian Civil War
Dayue 86/1
Dazu 44/2
De Gaulle, Charles 239
De Haugen, southern Africa 22/1
Debrecen 1 73/3, 175/4
Decembrist Revolution 1825 1 72/2
Declaration of Independence (US) 164,
165
Delagoa Bay 204/1
Delaware 182/1,185/3
Delaware Native Americans 183/4
Delft 103/3
Delhi
14th century 104/1
1526-1765 144, 144/1,144/2, 145/3
1800-1900 194/2, 210/1
1990s 281/4
Delhi (region)
1526-1765 144/4,145/3
Delhi, Battle of (1398) 89/4
Delhi, Sultanate of 62/1,89/4, 89/5
Delian League 41, 41/4
Delos 41/3
Democracy
Africa since 1939 25672
Eastern Europe since 1989 264-65,
264/1
since 1914 268, 268/1
women 270-71, 270/1
world 1914 160/1
Democratic Party (USA) 240, 241
Denain, Battle of (1712) 174/1
Deng Xiaoping 255
Denham, Dixon 205/3
Denikin, Anton Ivanovieh 222/1
Denmark
800-1100 62/1, 78/2, 79, 79/5
1350-1500 106, 106/1,107/3
1800-1914 171/3, 172/1,177/3
1914 220/1
colonies 1500-1800 119/2, 125/2, 130/1,
137/2, 145, 145/3
colonies 1830-1945 191/3, 193/3, 208/1,
227/2
First World War 218/1 , 220/2
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
industrialization 1830-1914 1 71/3
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
Second World War 232, 232/1 , 233/2,
233/3
since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 246/1, 272/1,
278/1
Sweden 1500-1600 150-51, 150/1
Thirty Years War 1618-48 159/2
urbanization 1800 133/4
Denver 187/3
Denyen 37/3
Derbent 69/1
Dercjvka 50/2
Dessau, Battle of (1628) 159/2
Detroit 187/3, 210/1, 281/4
Deventer 75/4
Dezhou 138/1
Dhanakataka 47/3
Di (Gui) people 31/3
Dia 81/3
Dias, Bartholomew 116, 116-17/1
Die, France 155/3
Dieffenbach, Ernst 202/1
Diem, Ngo Dinh 251
Dien Bien Phu, Battle of (1954) 250
Diest 103/3
Diet of Worms 152
Dijon 102/1, 107/4, 134/1, 158/1, 166/1
Dili 119/2
Dilligen 134/1
Dilmun 28, 29/3
see also Bahrein
Dimini, southeast Europe 20/J
Dinghai 198/1
Diocletian 55, 55/2
Dipanagara, Prince 197
Directory (French Republic) 166
Diu
1500-1770 118/1,119/2, 119/3, 130/1,
145/3
since 1945 249/3
Dixcove 137/2
Djailolo 119/2
Djambi 119/2, 196/1
Djazira 69/2
Djeitun 19/3, 50, 50/1
Djibouti 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 268/1
Djoser, Pharoah 30
Dmanisi 1 7/2
Dnepropetrovsk 222/1 , 223/3
Dnestr Republic 262/1, 263
Dobruja 97/4, 178/1
Dodecanese 178/1, 230/1
Dodge City 183/3
Dogger Bank, Battle of (1915) 218/1
Dole 134/1
Dolgans 180/1
Doliche 67/1
Dollfuss, Engelbert 231/4
Dolni Vestonice 16/3
Domburg 75/4
Dominica 125/2, 193/3, 247/3
Dominican Republic
see also Santo Domingo
1830-1910 193/3
1914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 227/2,
229/3, 269/2
since 1945 242/1 , 245/1 , 258/1 , 259/2,
266/1
Domitz, Battle of (1645) 159/2
Donatism 45/4
Donauworth, Battle of (1632) 159/2
Dong Son 52/2
Dongyi people 31/3
Dot 37/3
Dordrecht 91/3, 103/3
Dorestad 75/4, 78, 78/2
Doris 41/3
Dorpat 91/3, 107/4, 150/1
Dortmund 91/3
Dos Palmos 34/2
Dos Pilas, Mesoamerica 84/2
Douai 103/3
Double Entente (1894) 217
Douzy 74/2
Dover 93/4
Drahem 157/3
Drake, Francis 116-17/1, 11672, 117
Drangiana 43/1
Dred Scott Decision (1857) 184, 184/2
Drenthe 153/2
Drepane 38/3
Dresden 170, 173/3, 210/1,232/1
Dresden, Battle of (1813) 167/2
Dreux 92/1
Dry Creek 24/1
Dubcek, Alexander 236
Dublin
500-1500 78, 78/2, 93/4, 102/1
1700-1800 132/3, 133/4, 134/1
1800-1900 210/1
Duchang 31/3
Dudley Castle 135/2
Dull Knife, Battle of (1876) 183/4
Dunedin, New Zealand 202/1
Dunhuang 44/2, 53/1, 104/1
Dura Europos 45/4, 52/1
Durban 257/3
Duren 74/2
Durham Station, Battle of (1865) 185/3
Durocortorum 54/1
Durres 102/1
Dutch Brazil 130/1
Dutch East India Company 118, 130,
196
Dutch East Indies
see also Indonesia
1800-1914 208/1,211/1
since 1920 229/3, 250
Dutch Guiana
see also Surinam
1500-1880 122/2, 125, 127/2
1700-1914 192/1, 208/1,210/1
Dutch New Guinea 197/2
Dutch Republic see Netherlands
Dutch West India Company 130
Dvaravati 52/2, 64, 64/1
Dyrrachion (Dyrrachium) 94/1
Dyrrachium (Dyrrachion) 67/1, 67/3
Dzerzhinsk 223/3
Dzibilehaltun, Mesoamerica 33/4, 111/3
Dzungaria 72/1
Early Khartoum 22/1
Earth Summit 280
East Anglia 79, 79/3
East Asia
907-1600 86-87
Japan 1995 253/3
Tang period 618-907 72-73, 72/1
East Florida 182/1
East Francia 90, 90/1
East Frisia 157/3
East Germany 23671, 238/2, 244, 264, 264/1
East India Company see English East India
Company; Dutch East India Company
East Indies 116/2, 117/1
see also Dutch East Indies
East London 257/3
East Pakistan 248/2, 249
see also Bangladesh
East Pomerania 157/3
East Prussia 157/3,177/4, 220/2, 230/2
East Rand 257/3
East Timor 211/1
East Turkestan 139/3
Easter Island 26/1, 26/3, 27
Eastern Europe
1945-89 236-37
economic development 1990-97 265/2
since 1989 264-65
Eastern Orthodox Church see Orthodox
Christianity
Eastern Seyths 51/4, 53/1
EC see European Community
Eebatana 42/3
Echternach 75/3
Ecija 102/1
Economic Recovery Plan (ERP) 239
ECSC see European Coal and Steel
Community
Ecuador
1492-1780 121, 122/2, 123, 127/2
1820-1914 191/3, 192/1, 193, 210/1
1914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1 , 229/3
since 1945 258/1, 259/3, 272/2
Edessa 45/4, 68/1, 94, 94/1, 94/2, 95
Edinburgh
c.1300 93/4
1618-1800 132/3, 133/4, 134/1,156/1
Edington 79, 79/3
Edirne 97, 97/4
see also Adrianople
Edmonton 188/2, 189/3
Edo
see also Tokyo
1600-1867 141/2, 141/3
Edzna, Mesoamerica 84/2
EEC see European Economic Community
EFTA see European Free Trade Area
Egtved 21/3
Egypt
see also Aegyptus
2686-2181 BC 30, 30/1
2000-1000 BC 36, 36/1, 37, 37/2, 37/3
600-30 BC 23, 42, 42/1, 43, 43/4
1500-1800 136/1,146/1
Assyrian Empire 750-550 BC 39, 39/4
British Empire 1800-80 205, 206/1,
208/1
crusades 1095-1291 94, 95/5
democracy since 1939 256/2
European trade 1100-1300 101/4
First World War 218-19/1, 221, 221/3
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
independence 1922 256/1
Islamic conquests 634-644 68, 6671
Islamic conquests 1000-1400 88, 88/1,
89
Judaism 1500 bc-ad 600 45
Napoleon Bonaparte 166, 178
Ottoman Empire 1500-1882 142/1,
178/1,204/1
population 1700-1900 210/1
religions 750-1450 62/1
Roman Empire 500 bc-ad 400 54, 55/1
Second World War 232, 232/1, 233
since 1945 260-61, 260/1, 262/3, 266/1,
275/3, 277/3, 279/2
trade 150 BC-AD 500 52/1, 53
trade 500-1500 83/2
Eichstadt 75/3
Eire (Republic of Ireland)
see also Ireland; Irish Free State
Second World War 232/1, 233/2
Eirik the Red 78
Eiriksson, Leif 78, 7671
Eiriksson, Thorvald 78, 78/1
Ekaterinoslav 181/3
Ekehu 202/1
Ekron 45/3
El Alamein 232/1
El Argar 21/3
El Fasher 204/1
El Hamel 22/1
El Hasa 179/1
El Kril 22/2
El Peru, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
El Purgatorio, Peru 35/3, 84/1
El Salvador
1914-45 226/1 , 226/3, 226/4, 229/3
since 1945 242/1, 243, 258/1, 259/2,
259/3, 266/1
El Tajin, Mesoamerica 32/2
Elam
4000-1000 bc 28, 2671, 29/3, 36, 36/1,
37
900-30 BC 38/1,39/4, 42-43/1
Eland's Bay 23/4
Elba 147/3
Elbe Slavs 71, 71/4
Elbing
700-1500 70, 71/3, 7672, 91/3, 107/4
1500-1700 150/1
Eleanor of Aquitaine 93
Ele Bor 22/2
Elephantine 30/1
Eleuthera Island 193/3
Eleven Years' Truce (1609-21) 128
Elichpur 145/3
Elis 41/3
Elizabeth, New Jersey 187/3
Elizavetovskaya 51/4
Elmina 81, 81/3, 137, 137/2
Elsinore, Denmark
see also Helingor
158/1
Elsloo 20/1, 79/3
Emancipation Proclamation (1863) 184
Emden 154/1
Emei Shan 44/2
Emerita Augusta 54/1
Emila 147/3
Emishi and Ezo 72/1
Emporiae 40/2
Enghien 103/3
England
900-1300 93, 93/4
1350-1500 106, 106/2, 107, 107/3
1500-1600 146,146/1
civil war 1642-48 156/1
colonial empire 1600-1800 118-19,
119/2, 130, 130-31/1, 131, 137
economy 1620-1790 128-29, 128, 128/1,
129, 129/2
exploration 1450-1600116-17/1, 11672,
117
Habsburg Empire 1556-1618 152/1
Industrial Revolution 1750-1850 168,
16671,169
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
religion 750-1450 62/1
Thirtv Years War 1618-48 159/2
trade 950-1300 100
urbanization 1300-1800 102/1, 132,
132/1, 132/2, 132/3, 133/4
Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/2, 79, 79/3,
79/4, 93
English Civil War 156, 158
English East India Company 130, 194, 196,
198-99
English Navigation Acts 131
Eniwetok 235/3
Enver Pasha 179
Enserune 21/4
Entremont 21/4
Ephesus 42/1, 45/4, 55/1, 67/1, 67/3
Epidamnus 40/2
Epirus 41/4
Epirus, Despotate of 96, 9672
EPU see European Payments Union
Equatorial Guinea 246/2, 256/1
Erasmus 103
Erblande 153/3
Erdine 102/1
Eretria 40-41, 40/2, 41/3
Erfurt 102/1, 107/4, 134/1
Erie Canal 187
Eritrea
1700-1914 206/1, 208/1,210/1
since 1914 230/1,246/2, 256/1, 256/2,
260/1
Erlangen 134/1
Ertena 97/4, 143/1
Ervthrae 42/1
Esfahan 143
Esh Shaheinab 22/2
Eshnunna 29/3
Essen 232/1
Este lands 147/3
Estonia
1462-1795 14671, 148, 149, 150, 150/1,
151
1914-45 220/2, 221, 222/1 , 228/2, 229/3,
231/4, 232/1
since 1945 233/3, 236/1 , 236/2, 238/2,
262/1,270/2
Ethiopia
to ad 600 16/1, 23, 44/1
750-1500 62/1, 82, 82/1
1500-188013672, 205
democracy since 1939 256/2
drought 1984-85 277/4
education 1995 279/3
Gross National Product 1995 27671
Italian acquisition 1936 230/1, 231
migration 1918-98 275/3
since 1945 26671
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Etowah 109/3
Etruria 37/3
Etruscans 21/4, 54
Etzatlan, Mexico 85/4
EU see European Union
Eudaemon Arabia 52/1
Europe
to 10,000 BC 17,17/2
8000-200 BC 20-21, 20/1 , 21/3, 21/4
1350-1500 106-7
1500-1600 146-47
1815-71 1 76/1
1870-1914 216-17
1918-1939 220-21, 230-31
since 1945 238-39
Black Death 1347-52 104-5
Christianity 600-1500 62/1, 63/2
colonial empires 1600-1800 112/1,
118-19, 130-31, 145, 145/3
colonial empires 1800-1939 204, 206-7,
208
colonial empires since 1945 246-47
computer ownership 283/3
conflicts 1770-1913 162/2
economy 950-1500 100-1, 100/1,101/4,
107/4
economy since 1945 272-73
employment 1950-91 239/3
facism 230-31
First World War 218-19
foreign investment in 1914 209/2
French Revolution 1789-94 166, 166/1
GDP 1830-1910171
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2
industrialization 1830-1914 170-71
migration 1500-1914 187, 187, 189,
211/2
Napoleon Bonaparte 1796-1815 166-67,
166-67/2
population 1620-1790 128
population 1700-1900 210/1
rebellions 1600-1785 156-57
Reformation 1526-1765 154-55
Russian expansion 1462-1795 148
science and technologv 1500-1700
134-35
unrest 1815-49 172-73
urbanization 1000-1500 102-3
urbanization 1500-1800 132-33
warfare 1450-1750 158-59
world exploration 1450-1600 116-17
European Goal and Steel Community
(EGSG) 238/2, 239,
European Community (EC) 238/2, 239
European Economic Community (EEC)
238/2, 239, 273
European Free Trade Area (EFTA) 238/2,
239
European Payments Union (EPU) 239
European Recovery Programme (ERP) 272
European Union (EU) 238/2, 239, 265,
265/2, 273
Eusperides 40/2
Evenks 180/1
Everlasting League (1353) 90/2
Evolution
human 16-17, 16
Evora 102/1 , 134/1
Exeter 79/4
Eyre, Edward John 202/1
Failaka 29/3
Falkland Islands 130/1,192/1,246/2, 247,
247/2, 247/4
Fang people 31/3
Farfa 74/2, 75/3
Farfan, Peru 84/1
Faroe Islands 78, 78/1
Fars
500-1500 69/2, 88/2
1500-1683 142/2
Fascism 230-31
Fatimids 69/3, 88, 88/1,89, 94, 94/1,94/2
Federmann, Nikolaus 121/4
Feixi 31/3
Fell's Cave, South America 16/3, 24/1
Fengbitou 19/4
Ferdinand, King of Aragon 146
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor 147, 152,
153
Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor 153
Ferdinand V (Castile/Leon) 146
Ferdinand VII, King of Spain 172
Ferghana 53/1, 72, 72/1
Fernando P6o, West Africa 130/1 , 204/1 ,
206/1
Ferrara 102, 103/2, 134/1,147/3
Ferrieres 75/3
Fez 81/3
Fez, Kingdom of 88/1
Fiji 26/1, 247/2, 247/4
Filitosa 21/3
Finland
1500-1795 146/1, 147, 150, 150/1
1795-1914 180, 18071
First World War 216/2, 220/1 , 220/2, 221,
222/1
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
Second World War 232/1 , 233/2
since 1945 272/1,273/3
Finns 62/1
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-26) 196
First Indochinese War 245/1
First World War 218-19
build up to 216-17
Canada 189
Latin America 226, 226/3, 227
Ottoman Empire 179
outcomes 220-21
Russia 222, 222/1
Serb nationalism 175
Fiume (Rijeka) 230/1, 231
Five Forks, Battle of (1865) 185/3
Fladstrand, Denmark 158/1
Flag Fen 21/3
Flanders
500-1500 92/1, 93/5, 100, 100/1, 102-3,
103/3
1490-1700 153/2, 159
Flavigny 75/3
Flensburg 91/3
Fleurus, Battle of (1794) 166/1
Fleury 75/3
Flinders, Matthew 202/1
Flint 93/4
Florence
500-900 74/2
1300-1500 102/1, 103, 103/2, 105/2,
106/1,107/4
1500-1800 128/1,132/1, 132/3, 133/4,
134/1, 146/1,147/3, 152/1
1815-71 172/2,173/3, 176, 176/2
Flores 118/1, 196/1, 197/2
Florida
1600-1770 125/3, 130/1
1783-1910 182, 182/1, 184, 184/1, 184/2,
185/3
Foix, County of 92/2, 93/5
Foligno 107/4
Folsom 24/1
Fontbregoua 20/1
Ford, Gerald 242
Forez, County of 92/1
Formigny, Battle of (1450) 106/2
Formosa
see also Taiwan
e.1770 131/1
1880-1914 201,206/1
Fornova, Battle of (1495) 158/1
Forrest, J and A 202/1
Fort Boise 183/3
Fort Bridger 183/3
Fort Dauphin, Madagascar 130/1
Fort Donelson, Battle of (1862) 185/3
Fort Fisher, North Carolina 185/3
Fort Hall 183/3
Fort Hatteras, North Carolina 185/3
Fort Henry, Battle of (1862) 185/3
Fort Jackson, Louisiana 185/3
Fort James, West Africa 130/1
Fort Larantuka 118/1,119/2
Fort Macon, North Carolina 185/3
Fort Monroe, Virginia 185/3
Fort Morgan, Alabama 185/3
Fort Pickens, Florida 185/3
Fort Pulaski, Georgia 185/3
Fort Rock Cave 24/1
Fort St Philip, Louisiana 185/3
Fort San Salvador, Taiwan 119/2
Fort Sumter, South Carolina 184, 185/3
Fort Union 183/3
Fort Vancouver, Oregon 183/3
Fort William, Canada 188/2
Fort Zeelandia, Taiwan 119/2
Fossatum Afrieae 55/2
Fourteen Point 220
France
see also Gallia; Gaul
900-1300 92, 9271, 93, 93/5
1350-1500 106/1,106/2, 107, 107/3
1500-1600 146, 14671, 147, 147/2
1783-1914 190/1,191/3, 192/1, 193/3
1789-1815 166-67, 166-67/2, 166/1,
167/3
since 1945 238/1,238/2, 239
Africa 1500-1880 137, 137/2, 204, 204/1
Africa 1880-1939 206/1
Africa since 1939 256-57
Anatolia 1920-23179/4
car ownership and production 1990s
282/1
Caribbean 1500-1780 124-25, 125/2
Caribbean 1783-1914 193/3
China 1800-1911 198/1, 199, 199/2
civil unrest 1830-49 172/2, 173, 173/3
colonial empire 1600-1800 130,
130-31/1, 131
colonial empire 1870-1914 208/1, 209,
209, 209/2
colonial empire 1945-98 246, 246-47/2,
246/1,247,247/3
crusades 1095-1295 94/1, 95
economy 1620-1790 128-29, 128, 128/1,
129, 129/2
economy since 1945 272/1,272/2, 273
exploration 1450-1600 116-17/1, 117
First World War 216/2, 217, 21 7, 218-19,
218/1,219/2, 220, 220/1,220/2, 221,
221/3, 221/4
Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) 177
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2
Gross National Product 1995 27S71
Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152, 152/1,
153
India 1526-1765 145, 145/3, 194
industrialization 1830-1914 170/1, 171,
171/2,171/3
Latin America 1500-1780 122/2
Latin America 1783-1914 190/1, 191/3,
192/1
Middle East since 1945 260, 261
Napoleon Bonaparte 1793-1915 190-91
North America 1500-1780 124-25, 125/3
North America 1775-1914 165, 182, 188,
188/1, 189
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1, 155,
155/3
religion 750-1450 62/1
revolts 1618-80 156, 156/1, 157
Russian Revolution 222/1
Second World War 231, 232, 232/1, 233,
233/2, 233/3
slave trade 1500-1880 126-27, 12671
Southeast Asia 1790-1914 197, 197/2
Southeast Asia since 1920 250-51, 250/1
territorial acquisitions 1643-1715 157/2
trade 1100-1300101/4
trade in Asia 1500-1790 119
urban communities 1000-1500 102,
102/1
urbanization 1800 132, 133/4
Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/2, 79, 79/3, 79/4
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14)
174, 174/1
warfare 1450-1750 158-59, 158/1, 159,
159/2
Franche Comte 152/1, 153/2, 155/3
Franchthi, southeast Europe 20/1
Francia 75, 92
Francis I, King of France 147
Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria 174-75
Franco, General Francisco 231, 231/4
Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) 177, 216
Franco-Russian alliance (1894) 217
Franco-Swedish War (1635-48) 159/2
Franeonia 71/4, 90/1,153/3
Franeker 134/1
Frankfurt
500-1500 74/2, 91/3, 103, 107/4
1618-1770134/1,159/2
1800-1900 210/1,232/1
Second World War 232/1
Frankfurt-am-Main 102/1
Frankfurt-an-der-Oder, Siege of 151/2
Franklin, Tennessee 185/3
Franks 56, 5672, 57, 57/4, 74-75
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria 217
Fraser, Simon 188
Frederick I (Barbarossa), Holy Roman
Emperor 90, 95/4
Frederick II (the Great), Emperor 95
Frederick William IV, King of Prussia 177
Frederick, Maryland 185/3
Fredericksburg, Battle of (1862) 185/3
Fredrik Hendrik Island 197/2
Freetown, West Africa 204/1,208/1
Freiburg 134/1
Freising 75/3
Fremantle, Australia 202/1
Fremont peoples 109
French Congo 208/1 , 210/1
French Equatorial Africa 206/1
French Guiana
1500-1880 127/2
1700-1914 192/1,208/1, 210/1
since 1914 227/1,246/2
French Guinea 20671
French Indochina
1842-1914 197/2, 199/2, 208/1
since 1920 234/1, 250-51
French Somaliland 206/1 , 208/1 , 210/1
French Sudan 20671
see also Mali
French Wars of Religion 146, 155/3
French West Africa 206/1, 208/1, 210/1
Fresnes 135/2
Fribourg 90/2, 155/2
Friedland, Battle of (1807) 167, 167/2
Friedrichshafen 232/1
Friesland 153/2
Frisia 74/2
Frisians 56/1, 56/2, 57/4
Frobisher, Sir Martin 116/1, 117
Frondes 156, 15671
Frontera, Battle of (711) 68/1
Frunze 223/3
Fu Hao 30, 31
Fufeng 31/3
Fukui Cave 1871
Fukuoka 141/3, 200/1, 252/1
Fulani 205
Fulda 74/2, 75/3, 134/1,154/1
Funa River 23/3
Funabashi 252/1
Funan 31/3, 44/1, 52/2, 64, 64/1
Funfkirchen 134/1
Fushun 254/1, 255/2
Futa 204/1
Futuna Islands 246/2
Fuzhou
1368-1800 118/1,138/1,139/2
1800-1914 198/1, 199/2, 199/4, 211/1
since 1939 234/1, 254/1 , 255/3
Fvrkat 79/5
Gabon
1880-1939 206/1
since 1939 24672, 25671 , 25672, 277/3,
279/2
Gades 38/3
Gadsden Purchase 1850 182, 182/1,193/2
Galatia 54, 55/1
Galicia, eastern Europe 71/4, 146/1
Galicia and Lodomeria, eastern Europe
151/5,174/1,175/2
Galileo (Galileo Galilei) 134
Galindo, Peru 34/2, 35/3
Galla, East Africa 136/1
Galle, Ceylon 118/1,119/2, 145/3
Gallia 55/3
Gallia Aquitania 54/1
Gallia Lugdunensis 54/1
Gallia Narbonensis 54/1
Gallipoli 97/4, 218/1, 219
Gama, Vasoo da 116, 116-17/1, 118
Gambia
1700-1900 20671,210/1
since 1939 24672, 247/4, 25671, 256/2,
274/1
Gandara 43/1, 44/2, 53/1
Gandhi, Indira 248
Gandhi, Mohandas ("Mahatma") 195, 248
Gang of Four 255
Ganges Delta 280/2
Gangra 67/1
Ganj Dareh 18/2, 19/3
Ganweriwala 29/4
Gao, West Africa 80, 81, 81/3
Gaocheng 31/3
Gaotai 224/1
Garagay, Peru 34/1
Garibaldi, Giuseppe 176, 17672
Gascony 92/1, 100, 100/1
Gastein 107/4
Gath 45/3
Gatinais, County of 92/1
Gaugamela, Battle of (331 BC) 42/3
Gaul
Franks 200-900 74/1
Magyars 896-955 77/4
Roman Empire 500 bc-ad 400 54, 54/1,
57
Gaur-Tanda 144/1
Gautama, Siddhartha (see Buddha) 44
Gavrinis, western Europe 20/1
Gaya 47/3
Gaza
to ad 500 37/2, 42/3, 45/3
since 1945 260, 261/2, 261/3, 274/1
Gazankulu 257/3
Gdansk
see also Danzig
since 1945 264/1
Geeraardsbergen 103/3
Gela 40/2
Gelderland 103/3, 153/2
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Geldern 157/3
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) 272
Geneva 107/4, 133/4, 154/1,155/3, 158/1
Geng 31/3
Genghis Khan see Ghinggis Khan
Genoa
1500-1600 146/1, 147/3
1820172/2
Black Death 1347-52 305/2
Byzantine Empire 1340-60 97/3
centre of learning 1770 134/1
crusades 1095-1291 94/1, 95
economy 950-1300 101, 101/4
economy 1620-1775 128/1,129/2
Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152, 152/1
population 1500-1800 132/1,133/4
since 1939 232/1
urban communities 1000-1500 102/1,
103/2
George, South Africa 257/3
Georgia, eastern Europe
500-1500 67/3 , 88/3, 89/5
1500-1683 143/1
1683-1914 179/1,179/3
1914-45 275/3
1970s 236/2
1988-98 262, 262/1, 263, 263/2, 266/1,
279/2
Georgia, United States
admission to United States 182/1
American Civil War 184, 185, 185/3
e.1770 126, 130/1
slavery 126, 184/1, 184/2
Georgians 142/2
Gepids 5672, 57, 57/4, 76/1, 76/2, 77
German Confederation 172, 172/1, 173,
173/3, 177, 177/3
German Customs Union (1842) 177, 177/4
German East Africa 20671 , 208/1 ,210/1,219
German South-West Africa 206/1,208/1,
210/1
see also Namibia
Germania 55/3
Germania Inferior 54/1
Germania Superior 54/1
Germanic tribes 100-500 56-57, 5671, 5672
Germantown, Battle of (1777) 165/3
Germany
see also East Germany; West Germany
to AI> 600 45
500-1000 71/4, 77/4
1000-1500 90-91, 103, 106, 107/3, 107/4
Africa 1880-1939 206, 206/1,206/2
Canada 1763-1825 188/1
China 1800-1911 199/2
coal production 1912-13 237
colonial empire 1870-1914 208,208/1,
209, 209, 209/2
expansion 1935-39 230/2
fascism 1921-39 231, 231/4
First World War 216-17, 216/1,216/2,
218-19,218/1,219/2
First World War outcomes 220-21, 220/1,
220/2, 221/4
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228,
228/2, 229
Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152/1,
152/3, 153
Industrial Revolution 216-17
industrialization 1830-1914 170-71,
170/1,171/3
population 1620-1790 128, 128/1
revolutionary activity 1918-23 223/2
Second World War 232-33, 232/1 , 233/2,
233/3, 235
since 1990 264, 278/1,282/1
Sweden 1600-1700 150, 151, 151/2
unification 1815-71 176-77
urbanization 1500-1800 133/4
US intervention since 1945 242/1
Gesoriacum 55/2
Gettvsburg, Battle of (1863) 184, 185/3
Gevaudan 92/3, 92/2
Ghadames, North Africa 81/3, 204/1
Ghana
see also Gold Coast
500-1500 62/1, 80, 80/1, 81
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
democracy since 1957 256/2, 268/1
independence 1957 24672, 256-57, 25671
since 1920 257
trade 1980 273/3
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Ghat, North Africa 81/3, 204/1
Ghaznavid Empire 88, 88/1, 89
Ghent
500-1100 74/2, 79/3
1000-1500 91/3, 102, 102/1,106/1
Ghilzais 142/2
Ghurids 88/3, 89
Gibraltar
630-1000 68/1
1450-1750 158/1
1880-1914 208/1
since 1945 246/2, 247, 247/4
Gilan 142/2
Gilimanuk 52/2
Gilolo 118/1
Gironde 36673
Girsu 29/3
Giza 37/2
Glarus, Switzerland 90/2, 355/2
Glasgow 133/4, 134/1, 208/1,210/1, 232/1
Glasnost 237, 262
Glessen 134/1
Gloucester 79/3
Gnezdovo 78/2
Gniezno 70/2, 71/4
Gnosticism 45/4
Goa
1880-1914 208/1
European colonialism 1500-1790 117/1,
118, 118/1,119/2, 119/3, 130/1
India since 1945 249/3
Mughal Empire 1526-1765 144/2, 145/3
Gobedra 22/2
Godfrey of Bouillon 94/1
Godin Tepe 29/3
Godinne 74/2
Gokomere 23/4
Golan Heights 260, 263/3, 267
Golconda 345/3
Gold Coast
see also Ghana
1500-1800 137, 337/2
1700-1914 204/1,206/1, 208/1, 210/1
Gold Standard 229, 229/4
Golden Bull 90, 146
Golden Horde 62/3, 89, 89/5, 91/3 99, 99/3
Gombe Point 22/2, 23/3, 23/4
Gomel 222/J
Gommecourt 218, 218/3
Gomulka, Wladysla 236
Gonder 204/1
Gondrevelle 74/2
Gondwana 89/4, 144/4, 145/3
Good Friday Agreement (1998) 269
Goplanians 7672
Gorazde 267/3
Gorbachev, Mikhail 237, 242-43, 244,
262-63, 263, 264
Gordion 42/3
Gordonsville 385/3
Gorgan 53/3, 104/1
Gorkiy see Nizhniv Novgorod
Gortvn 54/3
Goslar 90/1, 91/3
Gothic architecture 103
Goths
see also Ostrogoths; Visigoths
56-57, 5673, 5672, 57/3, 7673, 77
Gottingen 134/1
Gouda 103/3
Gough Island 247/4
Graaff-Reinet 257/3
Gran Colombia 3 9J/3
Granada, Nicaragua 122/1
Granada, Spain
750-1500 62/3, S9/5, 92/3, 102/1, 106,
106/1
1556-1618 34673,352/3
1600-1785 35673
Black Death 128/1
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
population 1500-1800 132/1, 132/2,
133/4
Grand Bahama Island 193/3
Grand Canal, China 138/1
Grand Canyon 120/2
Grand Cayman 393/3
Grand Pressigny, western Europe 20/1
Grande Prairie, Canada 188/2
Granicus, Battle of (334 Be) 42/3, 43
Grant, Ulysses S (General) 185
Grant, J A 205/3
Grasshopper, North America 108/1
Graubunden 154/1
Grave Creek Mound, eastern North America
25/2
Gravisca 40/2
Graz 134/1, 173/3
Great Abaco Island 193/3
Great Basin, North America 25/2, 108-9
Great Britain
see also England, Northern Ireland,
Scotland, Wales
1500-1600 147
Africa 1500-1880 137/2, 204, 204/1
Africa 1880-1939 206, 206/1,206/2
Africa since 1939 256-57
Anatolia 1920-23 379/4
Anglo-Saxons AD 400-500 57, 57/3
Australia 1790-1945 202
Canada 1763-1914 188-89, 188/1
Caribbean 1625-1763 125/2
Caribbean 1830-1910 393/3
China 1800-1911 198-99, 198/1,
199/2
civil unrest 1819-31 172/2, 173
Civil war 1642-48 156
colonial empire c.1770 130-31/1
colonial empire 1880-1914 208/1,209,
209/2
First World War 23672, 217. 218-19,
238/3,220,221,221/3
France 1793-1815 36673, 167, 367/3
India 1600-1920 145, 345/3, 194-95
India since 1920 248, 248/1
industry 1750-1850 168-69, 369/3
Latin America 1800-1914 390/3, 393/3,
192, 192/1
Middle East since 1945 260, 261
New Zealand 1790-1945 202
North America 1600-1763 124-25,
124/1, 125/3
North America 1775-83 164-65
North America 1783-1910 182/1
Roman Empire 500 bc-ad 400 54/3, 55,
55/3
Russian Revolution 222/1
Second World War 232-33. 235, 235/3
slave trade 1500-1880 126-27, 126/1
Southeast Asia 1790-1914 196, 19671,
197, 197/2
Southeast Asia since 1920 250, 250/1
urbanization 1500-1800 132, 132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/1. 78/2, 79,
79/3, 79/4
Great Depression 221, 226, 228-29, 241
Great Exuma Island 193/3
Great Fire of London (1666) 132
Great Hungarian Plain 76-77
Great Inagua Island 193/3
Great Khan, Khanate of the 89/5, 99/3
Great Langdale, British Isles 20/1
Great Leap Forward 277/4
Great Moravia 70/2
Great Northern War (1700-21) 149, 151
Great Plains, North America 24, 25/2, 108,
109
Great Salt Lake 183/3
Great Schism (1054)96
Great Schism (1378-1417) 106, 307/3
Great Wall of China
800 uc-AD 500 48/1,48/2, 49, 53/4, 53/5,
53/3
1368-1644 139, 339/3
Great Zimbabwe 82, 82/1, 83, 83/2, 83/3
Greater Antilles 280/3
Greece
2000-500 isc 23, 23/3, 36, 3673 , 37/3
750-400 BC 40-41, 40/1,40/2, 41/3
Alexander the Great 43
Byzantine Empire 1025-1500 96, 96/2
dictatorship 1936-39 231/4
First World War 236/2, 218/1 , 220/1 ,
220/2, 221, 221/3
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
industrialization 1830-1914 171/3
nomad invasions 400 bc-ad 100 51/4
Ottoman Empire 1683-1830 173, 178,
378/3,379/4,23 7/3
Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54
Russian Revolution 222/1
Second World War 232, 232/1,233/2
since 1945 238/1,238/2, 239, 242/1, 244,
245/3
Greeks
to AD 500 38/3, 53
Greek War of Independence (1821-29)
172/2, 173, 178
Greenland
800-1500 78, 78/1, 109
1450-1770 33673,330/3
1880-1914 208/1
Gregory, A C 202/1
Greifswald 93/3, 134/1
Grenada
1600-1763 325/2
1830-1914 393/3
since 1945 242/1 , 247/3, 259/2
Grenoble 334/3, 355/3
Grey Leagues 155/2
Griff Colliery 135/2
Grimes Graves, British Isles 20/1
Grinagara 500 47/3
Gripsholm, Sweden 158/1
Grobin 70, 71/3, 78/2
Grodno 158/1, 181/3
Groningen 93/3, 134/1,153/2, 158/1
Gross Domestic Product
Europe 1830-1910 3 73
since 1945 272-73, 272/1, 276/1,
276/2
Gross National Product
1995 278/1
Gross World Output 278
Grosverde people 183/4
Grozny 179/3, 181/3, 223/3, 237/4, 263/2
Guadalajara, Mexico 227/3
Guadalcanal 234/2, 235/3
Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treatv of (1848) 182,
193/2
Guadeloupe
1625-1800 125/2, 127/2, 130/1
1830-1910 393/3
1945-98 247/3
Guam Island 234/2, 235/3, 242/1,247/2
Guanajuato, New Spain 122/1
Guang state 31/3
Guangling 49/4
Guangzhou
see also Canton
14th century 104/1
1368-1750 339/3, 131/1, 131/2, 138/1
1750-1914 198/1, 199/2, 199/4, 211/1
1914-45 224, 235/3
since 1945 254/1,255/2, 255/3, 281/4
Guantanamo 208/1
Guantanamo Bay missile base 245/3
Guatemala
1500-1914 122/1, 123/3, 190/1, 193,
193/3
1914-45 226/1, 226/3, 226/4, 229/3
distribution of wealth 1995 278
ethnic composition 1990s 259/3
exports 1990s 258/1
migration 1960 275/3
United Nations operation from 1989
26673
US intervention 1954 242/1 , 243, 245/1 ,
259/2
Guatemala Citv 226/1
Guavaquil, Ecuador 390/2, 227/3
Guernica 231, 231/3
Guiana
see also British Guiana; Dutch Guiana;
French Guiana
1770-1830 39673,393/3
Guila Naquitz, Mesoamerica 24/3
Guilford Court House, Battle of (1781)
365/3
Guilin 399/4
Guinea
1500-1800 137
since 1939 246/2, 25673, 25672
Guinea-Bissau 246/2, 25673, 257, 268/1
Guitarrero Cave 24/1 , 25/4
Guiyang 199/4, 254/1, 255/3
Gujarat
1211-1398 89/4
1526-1765 339/3, 144/4, 145/3
1805-1914194/2,195/3
Gulf War (1991) 261, 261/4
Gupta Empire 46, 4673, 47
Gustav Adolf, King of Sweden 159, 359/2
Gustav I Vasa, King of Sweden 147, 150
Gustav II Adolf, King of Sweden 150, 350
Guyana 227/3 , 24672, 247/4, 258/1
see also British Guiana
Gwalior 144/1,144/2, 248/1
Gvvisho 22, 22/1
Haarlem, Holland 103/3
Haarlem, Siege of (1572), Holland 158/1
Habsburg dynasty 90, 9073, 106/1
Habsburg Empire
1490-1700 34671, 150, 152-53, 156
1700-1918 173, 174-75, 374/3, 175/2,
175/4
Hachinoe 141/2
Hachioji 252/3
Hacilar 39/3
Hadar 3673
Hadrian, Roman emperor 55, 55/2
Hadrianople, Battle of (378) 56, 57/3
Hadrian's Wall 55/2
Hadrumetum 38/3
Hafsids 89/5
Hagenau, Germany 90/1
Hagi 141/3
Haicheng 3 98/1
Haikou 199/2
Hainan
see also Qionzhou
1368-1800 138/1
since 1914 234/3,255/3
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Hainaut 103/3
Haiphong 198/1,251/3
Haiti
see also St Domingue
1804-1914 190, 191/3, 193, 193/3
1914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 227/2
exports 1990s 258/1
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
United Nations operation 1993-96 26671 ,
267
US intervention since 1945 242/1,259/2
Hajar 69/1
Hakodate 141/2, 200/1
Halberstadt 157/3
Haliearnassus 42/1 , 42/3
Halifax, Canada 189/3, 208/1
Hall, Germany 107/4
Halland, Southwest Sweden 150/1
Halle 134/1,157/3
Hallstatt 21/4
Halmahera 119/2, 196/1, 197/2
Halwell 79/4
Hamah 94/2
Hamamatsu 200/1 , 252/1
Hamath 36/1,37/3
Hambledon Hill, British Isles 20/1
Hamburg
700-1500 71/3, 91/3, 107/4
1500-1800 128/1,129/2, 132/2, 132/3,
133/4, 150/1
1800-1900177/4,210/1
1914-45 223/2, 232/1
Hamdanids 69/3
Hammadids 88/1
Hammurabi, King of Babylonia 36
Hamwioh 75/4, 78, 78/2 '
Han dynasty 48-49, 48/2, 51/4, 52, 53/1, 64
Han state 48/1
Handan 31/3
Hangzhou
14th century 104/1
907-1600 86, 86/1
1800-1900 199/2, 199/3, 211/1
since 1945 254/1,255/2
Hankou 138/1, 199, 199/2, 199/4
Hannibal, Gartheginian general 54
Hanoi 197/2, 198/1,251/3
Hanover 1 77/4
Hanover-Oldenburg 1 72/1
Hanseatic League 91, 91/3, 107/4, 150,
150/1
Hanson, North America 24/1
Hansong 211/1
Hanyang, central China 138/1
Hanyong, Korea 87, 87/3
see also Seoul
Haora 280/2
Harappa 19/3, 29/3, 29/4
Harbin 254/1 , 255/2, 255/3
Harderwijk 134/1
Hariharalava 64
Harlech 93/4
Harper, Leonard 202/1
Harwan 44/2
Hastinapura 47/3
Hastings, Battle of (1066) 79/4
Haiti 36, 36/1
Hattin, Battle of (1187) 94, 95/3
Hattusas 36/1 , 37/3
HauaFteah 22/1, 22/2
Hausa 80, SO/1,136/1
Hausa Bakwai 81
Havana 122/1, 227/1
Havel, Vaclav 264/1
Hawaii 27, 116/2, 182
Hawara 37/2
Hawarden 135/2
Head-Smashed-In, North America 25/2
Heard Island 247/2
Hebrides 78, 78/1
Hebuterne 218, 218/3
Hecatompylos 42/3
Hedebv 78/2, 79/5
Hefei 254/1, 255/3
Heian 73, 73/4
see also Kyoto
Heidelberg 1 7/2, 90/1 , 134/1 , 159/2
Heihe 255/3
Heijo 73
Hejaz 68-69/1, 69/2, 143/1,221/3
Heligoland Bight, Battle of (1915) 218/1
Heliopolis 30/1, 37/2
Hellenistic civilisation 43, 43/4, 51/4
Helmstedt 134/1
Helsingor
see also Elsinore
91/3
Helsinki 181/3, 281/4
Hemeroscopium 40/2
Hemudu 18-19, 19/4
Henry II, King of England 92
Henry II, King of France 147, 153
Henry VIII, King of England 147
Heraclaia 40/2
Heracleopolis 37/2
Herat 98/1, 104/1
see also Alexandria Areia
Hereford 93/4
Herero 206/1
Heresburg 74/2
Herjolfsson, Bjarni 78, 78/1
Herodotus 51
Hersfeld 74/2, 75/3
Herstal 74/2
Herules 56, 56/2, 76/1, 76/2, 77
Hesse
1526-1765146/1, 155
Hesse, Electorate of
1815-71 177/4
Hesse, Grand Duchy of
1815-71 177/4
Hesse Kassel
1556-1765152/1,154/1
Heuneburg 21/4
Hevellians 70/2, 71
Hideyoshi, Toyotomi 87, 87/4
Higashiosaka 252/1
Higgs, North America 25/2
Hili 29/3
Himeji 141/3
Himera 40/2
Hindu States 89/3, 89/4, 89/5
Hinduism
1500 BC-AD 600 44-45, 44/1, 47
600-1500 62, 62/1, 63, 63/3, 64
since 1914 248, 248, 248/2, 249, 269/2
Hippo, North Africa 38/2
Hirado 141/2
Hirohito, Emperor of Japan 200
Hirosaki 141/3
Hiroshima
1600-1867 141/2, 141/3
1930 200/1
since 1939 235, 235/3, 252/1
Hispania
Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 55/3
Hispaniola
see also Haiti; St Domingue; Santo
Domingo
French colonization 1600-1763 125
slavery 1500-1880 127/2
Spanish colonization 1492-1780 120,
120/1,122/1,125/2
Hit 36/1
Hitler, Adolf 229, 231, 231/4, 232, 233
Hittite Empire 36, 37, 37/3, 39
Ho Chi Minh City 251 , 251/3
see also Saigon
Ho Chi Minh Trail 250/2, 251
Hobart, Tasmania 202/1
Hochdorf 21/4
Hogokdongl9/4
Hohenlinden, Battle of (1800) 167/2
Hohenzollern 1 77/4
Hohokam 108, 108/1
Hokkaido 19, 62/1
Hoko River 25/2
Holkar 194/1
Hollabrun, Battle of (1805) 167/2
Holland 103/3, 128
Hollandia, New Guinea 234/2, 235/3
Holocaust 233, 233/2
Holstein 90/1, 91, 154/1, 177/4
Holy Alliance (1815) 172
Holy Land
see also Israel; Palestine
1000-40 BC 45/3
1095-1291 94-95
Holy Roman Empire
962-1356 90-91
1350-1500 106,106/1, 107
1490-1700 146-47, 146/1, 152-53,
152/1,153/2,153/3
1786 157/3
1815-49 172
crusades 1095-1291 94/1
fortifications 1450-1750 158/1
German Confederation 1815 177
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
Italy 1500-59 147/3
Reformation 1526-1765 146-47, 154-55
Sweden 1620-1710151/2
Thirty Years War 1618-48 159/2
urban communities c.1300 102/1
Homestead Act (1862) 183
Hominids 16-17, 16, 16/1, 17/2
Homo erectus 16/1,16/3,17/2
Homo habilis 16, 16/1, 17/2
Homo neanderthalensis 16/3, 17
Homo sapiens 17
Horns 94/2, 98/1
Honduras
1500-1780 122/1
1830-1910 193/3
1914-45 22673, 226/4, 227/2, 229/3
since 1945 242/1 , 258/1 , 259/3, 274/1 ,
277/3
Honecker, Erich 264/1
Hong Kong
1792-1914 196/1,197/2, 198/1,208/1
air pollution 1990s 281/4
Chinese possession from 1999 247,
247/2, 255
computer ownership 283/3
economy since 1945 272/1
Japan 1995 253/3
population 1976 254/1
Second World War 234/2
Hooghly 118/1,119/2, 119/3, 144/2, 145/3
Hooke, Robert 135
Hoorn 103/3
Hopewell, North America 25/2
Hopewell culture 25, 25/2, 108
Hopi Mesa 108/1
Horthy, Miklos 231/4
Hospitallers of St John 95, 95/3
Hrazany 21/4
Hsi-Hsia 98/1
Hu Yaobang 255
Hua Shan 44/2
Huaca de los Chinos 34/1
Huaca del Loro, Peru 34/2
Huaca La Florida, Peru 34/1
Huaca Prieta 25/4
Huai-yi 31/3
Huainan 254/1
Hualfin, Peru 35/3
Huancavelica, Peru 34/1
Huangpi 31/3
Huanuco Pampa 110, 110/1
Huanuco, Peru 34/1
Huari, Peru 35, 35/3
Huaricoto, Peru 34/1
Huaxacac 111/3
Hubei 104/1,
Hudson's Bay Company 182, 188, 189
Hue (Hue) 196/1, 197/2, 208/1
Huesca, northeast Spain 134/1
Huet Vor 135/2
Huguenots 155
Huhhot 255/3
Huichun 255/3
Huixian 31/3
Huizong, Emperor 86
Hulegu 99
Hull 232/1
Humahuaca, Peru 35/3
Human Development Index 278, 279/2
Human rights
since 1914 268-69
Humans
colonization of the world 12/1
evolution 16-17, 16
Humayan, Mughal Emperor 144
Hunamni 19/4
Hunas (White Huns) 46, 46/1,46/2
Hundred Years War (1337-1453) 106,
10672
Hungary
see also Austria-Hungary
400-1000 71/4
1350-1500 106, 106/1, 107/3
1500-160014671, 147
1945-89 236, 236/1, 238/2, 244, 245/1
since 1989 264, 264/1, 265, 265/2, 278
Counter-Reformation 1517-1648 155
crusades 1095-1291 94/1
dictatorship 1919-39 231/4
ethnic minorities since 1900 1 75/3, 264
First World War 220/2, 221
fortifications 1450-1750 158/1
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152/1, 153,
153/3
Habsburg Empire 1700-1867 173,
174-75,174/1,175/2
Holy Roman Empire 962-1356 91/3
Ottoman Empire 1490-1700 152, 153,
178/1,178/2
religion 750-1450 62/1
revolts 1618-80 156/1
revolutionary activity 1919 223/2
Second World War 232/1, 233/2, 233/3
urban communities c.1300 102/1
Huns
see also Hunas
51, 51/5, 56-57, 57/3, 76-77, 7671
Huo state 31/3
Huron 124/1
Hurrian (Mitannian) Empire 36
Hus, John 107
Hussein, Saddam 243, 261
Hussites 95, 107, 107/3
Hutus 269/2
Hiiyttk 37/3
Hwangju-mok 87/3
Hyderabad
1526-1765 144/2, 144/4, 145/3
1800-1914 194/1,194/2, 195/3, 211/1
1930s 248/1
Hyksos 37
Hyogo 141/2
Ibadhi Islam 260/1
Ibn Jubayr 101, 101/4
Ibn Khaldun 105
Icehouse Bottom 25/2
Iceland
800-1100 78, 78/1
1450-1770 11671, 117, 130/1
1880-1914 208/1
since 1945 272/1,278/1
Ichabamba, Peru 35/3
Iconium 67/3
Iconium, Sultanate of 96, 9671, 9672
Idjil 81/3
Ife 8671, 81, 137
Ifriqiya 68/1
Igarka 223/3
Igbo 80/1, 137/2
Igbo-Ukwu 81, 81/3
Ildegizids 8S73, 89
Ileret 22/2
Ilkhanate 89, 89/5, 99, 99/3
Illinois 182, 182/1, 184/2, 185/3
Illyria 42/2, 43
Illyricum 55/3
Ilorin 204/1
Imabari 141/2
Imbagala 204/1
Imola 103/2
In Salah 81/3
Inca Empire
1400-1450 110, 110/1,110/2
1492-1780 120-21, 121/4, 122, 122/2
Incas
500-1500 84
1780 190
Independence, Missouri 183/3
India
to 10,000 BC 17/2
600 BC-AD 500 47-48, 47/3, 47/4
Achaemenid Empire 600-30 BC 43/1
agriculture 1961-84 249
British rule 1608-1920 194-95, 195/4,
208/1
British rule 1930s 248/1
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
distribution of wealth since 1945 278
early agriculture 18
economy since 1945 273
European activity 1500-1790 116, 117/1,
118-19, 118/1, 119, 119/2, 119/3
European colonial trade c.1770 130-31/1
flood danger 280/2
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
independence 1947 246, 247/2, 248,
248/2, 249
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
Kushan nomad confederacy 6,000 BC-AD
500 51
migration 1500-1914 21V2
migration 1918-98 275/3
Mughal Empire 1526-1765 144-45,
144/2, 145/3, 194
population 1700-1900 210-11/1
population 1941-1997 248
religion 1500 BC-AD 600 44, 44/1,44/2,
45,47
religion 600-1500 62-63, 62/1, 63/3
religion since 1917 248, 269/2
Sultanate of Delhi, 1211-1398 89, 89/4,
89/5
territorial disputes since 1947 249,
249/3
Timur-leng invasion, 1398-99 89/4
trade 150 bc-ad 500 52, 52-53/1, 53
trade 500-1500 83/2, 104/1
trade 1790-1914 196, 198
trade 1980 273/3
United Nations operations from 1949
26671
Zheng He voyages 1405-33 139/2
Indian Knoll 25/2
Indian Mutiny (1857-58) 194, 194/2
Indian National Congress Party 195, 248,
248/1
Indian Territory 184/2
ATUS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Indian Wars (1861-68, 1875-90) 183, 183/4
Indiana 182, 184/2, 185/3
Indianapolis 187/3
Indo-European languages 50/3, 51
Indo-Greek kingdoms 46, 46/1 , 46/2
Indo-Parthians 46/1
Indochina
see also French Indochina
1790-1914 197
since 1939 235, 246, 280/3
Indonesia
see also Dutch East Indies
1790-1914 196, 197
conflicts since 1953 269/2
democracy since 1914 268/1
distribution of wealth 278
employment since 1965 250
independence 1949 246, 247/2, 250
Japan 1995 253/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
since 1920 250/2, 251, 251/3
trade 1980 273/3
urban population 1990s 25 1/3
Indragiri 196/1
Indraprastha 47/3
Indrapura 119/2
Indus civilization 28-29, 29/3, 29/4, 44, 53
Industrial Revolution 168-69, 216-17
Infant mortality rate 277/3, 278
Ingelheim 74/2
Ingolstadt 134/1
Ingombe Ilede 83/2
Ingria 149, 150-51,150/1
Ingushetia 263/2
Inkatha Freedom Party 269/2
Innsbruck 90/1,107/4, 134/1
International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (1966) 268/1
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 257,
258, 272
Internet 283, 283/3
Inuit 109, 109/4, 189/3
Invercargill, New Zealand 202/1
Inverness 93/4
Ionia 42/1
Iowa 182/1,184/2
Ipiutak 25/2
Ipswich 75/4
Iraklion 102/1
Iran
see also Persia
600-30 BC 43
1000-1400 88, 89
1500-1683 142-43
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) 261, 261/4
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
population since 1945 274/1
Second World War 232/1
since 1945 260/1, 261, 261/4
trade routes 1880-1914 208/1
United Nations operation 1988-91 266/1
US intervention 1953 242/1
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) 261, 261/4
Iraq
630-1400 69/1, 69/2, 88, 88/2
First World War 221/3
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
invasion of Kuwait 1990 261, 261/4
Iran-Iraq War 1980-88 261, 261/4
Kurds since 1918 269/2
Palestine Conflict 1948-49 260
population growth since 1945 274/1
Second World War 232/1
since 1945 243, 260/1, 261
United Nations operation 1988-91 266/1
United States intervention since 1945
242/1
Ireland
see also Eire; Irish Free State; Northern
Ireland
900-1300 93, 93/4
division 1922 268, 269/3
First World War 218/1
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
Great Schism 1378-1417 107/3
Henry 1500-1600 147
industry 1650-1750 129/2
industry 1830-1914 170/1
population e.1650 128/1
rebellions 1618-80 156, 156/1
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
religious conflict since 1914 268-69,
269/2
since 1945 238/2
trade 1980 273/3
urbanization 1300-1800 102/1,132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/1, 78/2
Irian Jaya 250/1, 266/1
Irish Free State (1922-37) 269/3
Irish Republican Army (IRA) 268-69
Irkutsk 148/2, 223/3 '
Iron Age 21
Iron Curtain 244
Iroquois Confederacy 108
Ischia 40, 40/2
Ishango 22/1
Ishinomaki 141/2
Isla Cerritos 85/3
Isla de Sacrificios 85/3
Islam
600-1500 62-63, 62/1, 63/3, 68-69,
88-89, 88/1, 88/3,89/5
Africa 500-1500 81, 82, 82/1
Africa 1500-1880 136, 204, 205, 205/2
Black Death 1347-52 105
crusades 1095-1291 94-95
India since 1920 248, 248, 248/2
Mongol Empire 1207-79 99
Ottoman Empire 1500-1683 96-97, 96/1,
178-79
Safavid Empire 1500-1683 142-43
since 1917 261, 265, 269/2
Southeast Asia 1792-1860 196-97, 196/1
Spain 900-1300 92/2, 92/3, 93
trade with Europe 950-1300 101, 101/4
Ismail I, Shah of Iran (Persia) 142-43, 142/2
Isonzo, Battle of (1915-17) 218/1
Israel
see also Arab-Israeli Wars
1000-40 BC 38, 38/2, 39, 45/3
computer ownership 283/3
migration since 1945 275/3
population growth since 1945 274/1
since 1945 246/2, 260, 260/1, 261, 261/2,
261/3
United Nations operation from 1948
266/1
Israelites 38, 45
Issus, Battle of (333 Be) 42/3, 43
Istanbul see Byzantium; Constantinople
Istria 40/2, 174/1
Istrus 55/2
Italian Somaliland 206/1,208/1, 210/1,230/1
Italy
see also individual city states
1350-1500 106
1500-1600 147, 147/3
since 1945 238/1,238/2, 239, 272/1,
272/2, 275/3, 282/1
Anatolia 1920-23 179/4
Angevins 1154-1300 101, 101/4
barbarian invasions 100-500 56-57
colonies 1870-1939 206/1, 208, 208/1,
209,230/1,246/1
fascism 1921-39 230-31,231/4
First World War 216/1,216/2, 217, 217,
218/1 , 219, 220/1 , 220/2, 221, 221/3,
221/4
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2
Greek colonies 750-400 BC 40, 40/2
Holy Roman Empire 950-1360 90, 90/1
industrialization 1830-1914 170/1, 171,
171/3
Judaism to AD 600 45
Magyar campaigns 896-955 77/4
military development 1450-1750 158-59
Napoleonic Europe 1796-1815 167/2
Normans 950-1300 101
population 1620-1790 128, 128/1
Roman Empire 500 bc-ad 400 54/1
Second World War 232, 232/1, 233,
233/2, 233/3
trade 950-1300 100-1
unification 1815-71 176
urban communities 1000-1500 102,
102/1, 103, 103/2
urbanization 1500-1800 132, 132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
Vikings 800-1100 78
Itazuke 19/4
Itil 78/2
Itzan, Mesoamerica 84/2
Itztepetl S5/4
Ivan III (the Great), Grand Duke 148
Ivan IV (the Terrible), Grand Duke 146,
148-49
Ivanova 222/1
Ivanovo- Voznesensk 181/3
Ivory Coast
1880-1939 206/1
since 1939 246/2, 256/1,256/2, 257,
274/1,275/3
Ivrea 74/2
IwoEleru 22/1, 22/2
Iwo Jima 235/3
Iximche 85/3, 111/3
Ixtutz, Mesoamerica 84/2
Izamal, Mesoamerica 84/2
Izapa, Mesoamerica 32/1
Izborsk 70, 72/4, 78/2
Izhevsk 223/3
Jackson, Mississippi 185/3
Jacksonville, Florida 185/3, 208/1
Jacmel 120/1
Jacquerie Revolt (1358) 107
Jade Gates Pass 53/1
Jaen, southern Spain 102/1
Jaffa 94/2
Jaffna 118/1, 119/2, 145/3
Jagiellon dynasty 106, 147
Jahangir, Mughal Emperor 145, 145
Jaina, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Jainism 44, 47, 248
Jaipur 194/1
Jakarta
see also Batavia
1500-1790 119/2
since 1914 251 , 251/3, 281/4
Jalalabad 29/3
Jalon 204/1
Jamaica
1492-1780 120/1, 122/1, 125/2, 127/2,
130/1
1830-1910190/1,193/3
since 1945 247,247/3
James, I King of England, VI King of
Scotland 147
Jamestown, Virginia 130/1
Jamtland Harjedalen 150/1
Jankau, Battle of (1646) 159/2
Janissaries 142, 178,
Japan
to AD 600 19, 19/4,44/2
618-907 72/1,73, 73/4
907-1600 87, 87/4
since 1945 252-53, 253/3
car ownership and production 1990s
282, 282/1
China 1800-1911 198, 198/1, 199,
199/2
China 1894-1944 225
colonies 1880-1939 208/1, 209, 246/1
computer ownership 283/3
distribution of wealth 278
economy since 1945 272, 272/1 , 273
European activity 1500-1790 117/1, 118,
118/1,119/2, 119/3, 131/1
Great Depression 1929-33 229
Gross National Product 1995 278/1
manufacturing output since 1960 253,
253/2
Meiji period 1867-1937 200-1
migration 1500-1914 211, 211/2
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
population 1800-1900 211/1
population since 1950 252, 252/1
religion 600-1500 62, 62/1, 63, 63/3
standard of living since 1945 278
Taiwan 1792-1914 197/2
Tokugawa period 1600-1867 140-41
trade 1870-1914 209
trade 1980 273/3
trade with East Asia 1995 253/3
trade with Ming China 1368-1644 138/1
war in Asia 1931-45 232, 233, 234-35,
234/1,234/2
Jargampata, Peru 35/3
Jarmo 18/2, 19/3
Jarvis Island 246/2
Jasalmer 144/2
Jassy 158/1 , 1 73/3, 1 75/4
Jaunpur 89/4, 144/1
Java
to AD 600 19/4, 26/1, 44/2, 52/2
500-1500 64/2, 65
1750-1914 196, 196/1, 197, 197/2
since 1914 234/2, 251/3
European activity 1500-1790 118/1,
119/2, 119/3, 131/1
Ming China 1368-1800 139/2
religion 600-1500 62/1, 63/3
Java Sea, Battle of the (1942) 234/2
Java War (1825-30) 196, 196/1
Jayavarman II 64, 64/2
Jayawardene, Junius 249
Jazira 88/2
Jebel el Tomat 22/2
Jebel Uweinat 22/1
Jedda/Jeddah see Jiddah
Jedisan 142/1, 178/1
Jefferson, Thomas 165, 182
Jelling 79, 79/5
Jena 134/1
Jena, Battle of (1806) 167/2
Jenne-jeno 23, 23/3, 80, 81/3
Jericho 18/2, 19/3
Jerusalem
to AD 500 36/1 , 38, 44/1 , 45/3, 45/4
527-1025 67/3
1095-1291 94-95, 94/1,94/2, 95/3, 95/4,
98/1
since 1914 219, 219/1, 260, 261/2,
261/3
Jerusalem, Kingdom of 95/5
Jessore 280/2
Jesuits 155
Jesus Christ 45
Jews 44/1, 45, 45/3, 211/2, 231, 233, 233/2,
260, 261/2, 261/3
Jiangmen 199/2
Jiangxi province 224
Jiangzhai 19/4
Jianshui 199/4
Jiashan 31/3
Jibal 69/2
Jiddah 68/1 , 104/1 , 139/2
Jihua Shan 44/2
Jilan, Middle East 69/2
Jilin 254/1, 255/2
Jilin, Battle of (1948) 225/2
Jilong 198/1
Jin dvsnasty 86, 87, 87/2, 98/1,99
Jinan 31/3, 254/1 , 255/2
Jincamocco, Peru 35/3
Jingdezhen 138/1
Jinzhou 225/2, 255/2
Jiujiang 138/1 , 199/2, 199/4, 255/3
Jochi 99
Jodhpur 144/2
Johannesburg 257/3
Johannesburg, Battle of (1900) 206/2
John, King of England 93
John VI, King of Portugal , 191
Johnston Island 246/2
Johore 119/2
Job, Philippines 196/1, 197/2
Jolof 204/1
Jordan 246/2, 260, 260/1, 274/1,277/3
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor/Emperor of
Austria 174
Juan Carlos, King of Spain 239
Jubaland 230/1
Judah
see also Judea
38, 38/2, 39, 45/3
Judaism
to ad 600 44/1, 45
600-1500 62, 62/1
since 1914 231, 260/1, 269/2
Judea
see also Judah
54, 55/1
Jiilich 154/1
Julius Caesar see Caesar, Julius
Junin, Peru 25/4
Junin, Battle of (1824) 190/2
Jurchen 86, 87, 87/2
Jurjan 69/2
Justinian, Byzantine emperor 66, 66-67/1
Juterbog, Battle of (1644) 159/2
Jutes 56/2
Jutland, Battle of (1916) 218/1, 219
Juxtlahuaca, Mesoamerica 32/1
Kaarta 204/1
Kabah, Mesoamerica 84/2
Kabardino-Balkaria 263/2
Kabul 104/1,144/1, 144/2, 145/3
Kadero 22/2
Kaegyong 87, 87/3
Kaesong 44/2
Kaffa 101/4, 104/1, 105/2
Kagoshima 141/2, 141/3, 200/1, 252/1
Kai Islands 119/2, 196/1, 197/2
Kaifeng 86, 86/1
Kaifeng, Battle of (1948) 225/2
Kairouan 68/1
Kaiser Wilhelmsland 197/2, 208/1, 211/1
Kalambo Falls 22/1 , 23/4
Kalanay 52/2
Kalibangan 29, 29/3, 29/4
Kalinga 46, 46/1,46/2
Kalinin 223/3
Kaliningrad see Konigsberg
Kalmar (Galmar), southern Sweden 158/1
Kalmar, Union of (1397) 106, 106/1, 147,
150
Kalsburg 158/1
Kaluga 181/3
Kalundu 23/4
Kamakura 87
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Kamenets, Siege of (1672) 158/1
Kamenskoye 51/4
Kamerun
see also Cameroon
206/1,210/1
Kamirjaljuyu, Mesoamerica 32/2, 33/4
Kamloops 188/2
Kanara 194/1
Kanauj 47/3
Kanazawa 200/1
Kanehipuram 44/2, 47/3, 47/4
Kandahar 144/1, 144/2
see also Alexandria (Kandahar)
Kane 52/1
Kanem 136/1
Kanem-Borno 80-81, 80/1
Kanesville 183/3
Kanghwa Island 87, 87/3
Kangzhu 51/4, 53/1
Kaniskapura 47/3
Kano 80, 81/3, 204/1
Kansas 182/1, 184,184/2
Kansas City 183/3, 187/3
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) 184
Kaohsiung, Taiwan 254/1
Kapilavastu 44/2, 47/3
Kapisha 53/1
Kapisi 47/3
Kapwirimbwe 23/4
Kara Kum culture 50/1,50/2
Karabakh
see also Nagorno-Karabakh
143/1,179/1
Karachey-Cherkessia 263/2
Karachi 208/1, 281/4
Karafuto 208/1
see also Sakhalin
Karaganda 223/3
Karagwe 204/1 , 205
Karako 19/4
Karakorum 104/1
Karaman 97/4
Karanovo, Southeast Europe 20/1
Karaoglan 37/3
Karheri 47/4
Karlovy Vary 90/1
Kars 67/i
Karwa, Peru 34/1
Kasanje 136/1
Kaschau 158/1
Kashgar 44/2, 47/4, 53/1
Kashmir
750-1450 62/1
1526-1765 144/4, 145/3
1846-1914 194/2, 195/3
since 1947 249, 249/3
Kasimbazar 144/2
Kasonga 204/1
Kassite Empire 36
Kasthanaea 41/3
Katanga 257
Kathiawar 194/1
Katsina 81/3
Katuruka 23/3, 23/4
Kausambi 47/3
Kaveripattinam, southeast India 47/3, 47/4,
53/1
Kawasaki 200/1, 252/1
Kaya 73/3
Kaya-san 44/2
Kazakhs 180/1
Kazakhstan 236, 236/2, 237/3, 262/1 , 268/1
Kazan
1462-1795 148, 148/1,148/2
1917-39 222/1,223/3
revolution 1905-7 181/3
Kebara 18, 18/1
Kedah 119/2, 119/3, 196/1
Kediri 64/2, 65
Kemal, Mustafa see Atatiirk
Kemerovo 223/3
Kennedy, John F 243
Kentucky 182/1, 184/1, 184/2, 185/3
Kenya
to 10,000 BC 16/1
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
democracy since 1939 256/2
education" 1995 279/3
female suffrage 270/1
independence 1963 246/2, 256/1, 257
population growth since 1945 274/1
since 1939 257
trade 1980 273/3
Kepler, Johannes 134
Keraits 62/1
Kerch 158/1
Kerguelen Island 247/2
Kerksdorp 257/3
Kermadec Islands 246/2
Keta 137/2
Khabarovsk 223/3
Khairpur 194/2
Khandesh 145/3,194/1
Khania 37/3
Khantv 180/1
Kharbar 68/1
Kharga 22/1, 22/2, 81/3, 83/2
Kharkov 181/3, 222/1 , 223/3
Khatam 47/4
Khayelitsha 257/3
Khazar Empire 69/3
Khazaria 62/1
Khazars 71/3, 76-77, 77/3
Kherson
see also Chersonl49/3
Khirokitia 19/3
Khitan 72/1, 86, 86/1,87
Khiva, Khanate o! 142/2
Khlong Thorn 53/1
Khmer Empire 62/1
Khmers
500-1500 64, 64/2
1792-1860 29672
Khocho 44/2
Khoi 136/1
Khomeini, Avatollah Ruhollah 261
Khotan 44/2,53/1
Khrushchev, Nikita 236, 236
Khulna 280/2
Khurasan 69/2 , 69/2, 88/2
Khuzistan 88/2
Khwarazm 69/2
Khwarazm-shahs 88/3, 98-99, 98/1
Kiel 134/1, 232/1
Kiet Siel 108/1
Kiev
527-1100 67/3, 70, 72/3, 72/4, 78/2
1207-7998/1,98/2,99
1618-80 156/1
1905-7 2S2/3
1917-39 172/2, 222/1,223/3
Kievan Empire 71/4
Kikuyu 136/1, 204/1
Kilkenny 156/1
Kiltia, Black Sea 158/1
Kilwa 82, 83, 83/2, 204/1
Kilwa Kisiwani 118/1
Kimberley 257/3
Kinai, Japan 73/4
Kinburn 158/1
King, Martin Luther 241
King William's Town, South Africa 257/3
Kings Lynn 91/3
Kingston, Jamaica 208/1
Kinishba 108/1
Kintampo 22/2
Kipchaks 88/3
Kiribati 246/2, 247/4
Kirman 69/2, 69/2
Kish 29/3
Kishinev 181/3, 222/1
Kitakyushu 252/1
Kitanosho, Battle of (1583) 87/4
Kitchener, Horatio 206, 207
Kition 37/3
Kitsungani 204/1
Kizzuwatna 3672
Klasies River Mouth 1673
Knights Hospitallers 95
Knights of St John 97/3
Knights Templar 95, 95/3
Knossos 36/1
Knoxville 285/3
Kobe 200/1 , 211/1 , 252/1
Kochi 242/2, 141/3
Kogurvo 73, 73/3
Kokala 42/3
Kokand 104/1
see also Alexandria Eskhata
Kolchak, Alexander Vasilyevich 222/1
Kololo 204/1, 205
Kolozsvar (Cluj) 273/3, 275/4
Komi 280/2, 262/2
Komoro 141/2
Komsomolsk 223/3
Konbaung Burma 196/1, 197
Kong, West Africa 81/3
Kongo 136/1, 137
Konigsberg (Kaliningrad)
1350-1500 91/3, 107/4
1500-1770 129/2, 133/4, 134/1, 135/2,
150/1,158/1
Koobi Fora 26/2
Koonalda 2673
Kootenay, Canada 188/2
Koptos, Egypt 52/1, 53
Korea
see a(so North Korea; South Korea
to AD 600 19,44/1,44/2
618-1400 62/2, 73, 73/3, 73/4, 98/1
1400-1600 87, 87/2, 87/3, 87/4
1800-1911 198/1, 199
Japan 1880-1914 200/3, 201, 208/1,
224/1
Japan 1931-45 234/2
Manchu Qing vassal state 1644-1800
139/3
population 1800-1900 222/2
Second World War 234/2
Korea, Republic of see South Korea
Korean War (1950-53) 242/1, 244, 244/2,
245/1, 252
Korinthos
see also Corinth
102/1
Kortrijk 103/3
Koryaks 180/1
Koryo 73
Korvo dynasty 87, 87/2, 87/3
Kosovo 105, 264/1, 265, 265/3
Kosovo Polje, Battle of (1389) 97/4, 142/1
Kossuth, Louis 174
Roster 25/2
Kostroma 181/3, 222/1
Kosygin, Alexei 236
Kot Diji 29/4
Kota Bharu 234/2
Kotosh, Peru 25/4, 34/1
Koumbi Saleh 80, 81, 82/3
Kourounkorokale 22/1
Kovno 91/3
Kow Swamp 16/3
Kowloon 299/2
Kozelsk, Battle of (1237-38) 99
Kraina 267/3
Krak des Chevaliers 94/2
Krak des Moabites 94/2
Krakow
700-1500 71/3, 72/4, 92/3, 98/2, 102/1,
107/4
1450-1770134/1,158/2
Habsburg Empire 1795-1809 273/3,
274/2,275/4
industry 1830-1914 170
Second World War 232/1
Krakow, Republic of 2 72/1
Krasnodor 223/3
Krasnoj, Battle of (1812) 267/2
Krasnovodsk 223/3
Krasnoyarsk 148/2, 223/3
Krewo, Union of (1385/6) 20672
Kronstadt (Brasov) 222/1
Krzemionki 20/1
Kuala Lumpur 251/3
Kuba 136/1,204/1
Kuban 149/3
Kublai Khan see Qubilai Khan
Kubota 141/2
Kucha 44/2, 53/1
Kuching War 234/2
Kuchuk-Kainarji, Treaty of 178-79/1
Kufa, Mesopotamia 69/1
Kufra, northeast Africa 81/3, 83/2, 204/1
Kukawa 81/3
Kul Oba 51, 51/4
Kultepe 3671
Kumamoto 141/2, 200/1, 252/1
Kumaon 194/2
Kumsong 73, 73/4
see also Kyongju
Kung Fu Tzu see Confucius
Kunlun Shan 50/2
Kunming 299/4, 224/1 , 254/1 , 255/3
Kuntur Wasi, South America 25/4, 34/1
Kuomintang 224-25, 225/2
Kupang 229/2
Kurdistan 243/2, 221/3
Kurds
1500-1683 142/2, 143
1920-22 279/4
since 1945 260/2, 261, 262/4, 269/2
Kure 200/1
Kursk 181/3, 223/3
Kursk, Battle of (1943)233
Kurukshetra 47/3
Rush
see also Nubia
30, 30/1
Kushan Empire 46, 46/1,46/2, 51, 52/4, 53,
53/1
Rusinagara 44/2, 47/3
Kutei, Borneo 52/2, 53/1
Ruwait
First World War 229/2 , 222/3
Human Development Index 1994 279/2
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
Iraqi invasion 1990 242/1, 261, 261/4,
266/1
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
Ottoman Empire 1683-1899 179/1
population growth since 1945 274/1
since 1945 260/1
Kuybyshev 223/3
Kuzbass 223/3
Kuznetsk 148/2
Kwajalein 235/3
Kwale 23/3, 23/4
KwaMashu 257/3
Kwandebele 257/3
Kwangju-mok 87/3
Kwangtung 200/3
Rwararafa 80/1, 137/2
Kwazulu 257/3
Kynossema, Battle of (411 Be) 41/4
Kyoju-mok 87/3
Kyongju 44/2
Kyoto
see also Heian
907-1600 87
1600-1867 142/2, 141/3
1800-1930 200/1,211/1
1995 252/1
Ryrgyzstan 236/2, 262/1
Kythera 41/3
Kyzyl Kum culture 50/1
L'Aquila 103/2
La Chausee-Tirancourt 20/1
La Coruna 152/1, 172/2
La Coruna, Battle of (1809) 266/2
La Estanqueria, Peru 34/2
La Ferrassie 2 7/2
La Galgada, Peru 34/1
La Marche, County of 92/1
La Mina, Peru 34/2
La Pampa 34/1
La Paya 110/1
La Paz, Bolivia 190/2, 227/1
La Plata 123/3
La Puerta, Battle of (1818) 190/2
La Quemada 85/3
La Rochelle 155/3
La Spezia 232/1
La Tene 21/4
La Venta, Mesoamerica 32/1
La Victoria, Mesoamerica 24/3
Labna, Mesoamerica 84/2
Labrador 78/1
Labuan 19671, 197/2
Labwe 19/3
Lacanha, Mesoamerica 84/2
Laconia 41/3
Lade 42/1
Ladysmith, Siege of (1899-1900) 206/2
Laetoli 16, 1671
Lagny 100/1, 101
Lagos 130/1, 208/1
Lagosta 230/1
Lahore 104/1, 144/1, 144/2, 145/3
Lahun 37/2
Lajos II, King of Hungary 147
Lake Besaka 22/2
Lake Kerinci 52/2
Lake Mungo 16/3
Lake Superior 188/2
Lake Titicaca 35, 121/4
Lake Trasimene, Battle of (217 BC) 54
Lake Turkana 22, 22/1
Lake Winnipeg 188/2
Lakshmikantapur 280/2
Lalibela 82
Lama Negro, Peru 34/2
Lamanai, Mesoamerica 84/2
Lambayeque 34/1
Lamoka 25/2
Lan Chang 65/3
Land of Punt 53
Lander, J 205/3
Lander, Richard 205/3
Lands of the Generality 153/2
Landsberg 159/2
Langres 75/4, 92/1, 158/1
Languedoc 93/5, 100
Langweiler, northwest Europe 20/1
Langxi 225/2
Lankasuka 64/1
L'Anse aux Meadows 78, 78/1
Lanzhou 104/1 , 254/1 , 255/2, 255/3
Lao-tze 45
Laodicea 67/3
Laoguantai 19/4
Laon, northern France 75/3, 92/1
Laos
1800-1914197/2,199/2
since 1914 242/1, 247/2, 250/1,251/3,
268/1,279/2
Laotian Crisis (1960-62) 242/1,245/1
Lapland 150/1
Laredo, northern Spain 152/1
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Larissa 67/3
Larsa 36, 37/1
Las Bocas, Mesoamerica 32/1
Las Haldas, Peru 34/1
Las Limas, Mesoamerica 32/1
Las Vegas 25/4
Lascaux 1 6/3
Latakia 94/2
Latin America
1400 BC-AD 1000 25, 25/4, 34-35
500-1500 84, 84/1, 110, 110/1
1770-1830 190-91
1830-1914 192-93, 193, 193/3
1914-45 226-27, 227/2, 228, 229/3
since 1945 258-59, 273, 280, 280/3
colonies 1939 246/1
democracy since 1914 268/1
European exploration 1450-1600 116/1,
116/2, 117
foreign investment in 1914 209/2
immigration 1500-1914 211/2
population 1700-1900 210/1
Spanish colonization 1492-1780 120/2,
121/4, 122-23, 122/1,122/2
Spanish colonization 1500-1780 122/1,
122/2
Latin Empire 96/2
Latin War (498-493 Be) 54
Latvia
1945-89 236/1 , 236/2, 238/2
fascism 1921-39 231/4
First World War 220/2, 221, 222/1
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
Second World War 232/1 , 233/3
since 1989 262/1, 270/2
Lauenburg 157/3
Laurentide ice sheet 24/1
Lauricocha, South America 25/4
Lausanne, Treaty of (1923) 178-79/1, 179,
220/2, 22V3
Lava Beds, Battle of (1872-73) 183/4
Le Havre 170
Le Mans 232/1
League of Nations 220, 221, 246/1 , 268
Leang Buidane 52/2
Lebanese Civil War 260-61, 266/1
Lebanon
1920179/1,221/3
since 1945 24672, 260-61, 260/1, 26671
Lebowa 257/3
Lechfeld, Battle of (955) 77, 77/4, 90/1
Lee, Robert E 185
Leeds 133/4, 210/1
Leeward Islands 127/2, 130/1
Lefkandi 37/3
Legnano, Battle of (1176) 90/1
Leicester 93/4
Leichhardt, Friedrich 202/1
Leiden 103/3, 128/1, 134/1, 135, 135/2
Leipzig
1350-1500 107/4
1500-1770 132/3, 134/1 , 135, 135/2
1800-1914 170, 210/1
20th century 223/2, 264/1
Leipzig, Battle of (1813) 167/2, 177
Leki Male 21/3
Lemberg (Lvov) 173/3, 175/4
Lengyel, southeast Europe 20/1
Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 222-223, 222
Leningrad 223/3
see also Petrograd; St Petersburg
Lens, Battle of (1643) 153
Leon 101/3
Leon, Kingdom of 92/2, 94/1
Leon-Castile, Kingdom of 92/3
Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor 174
Leopold VI, Duke of Austria 95/5
Lepanto 97/4
Lepanto, Battle of (1571) 142/1
Lepcis Magna 38/3
Leptis 23/3, 40/2
Lerida, northeast Spain 134/1
Lesbos 97/4, 142/1
Lesotho 246/2, 247/4, 256/1 , 256/2
see also Basutoland
Lesser Antilles 130/1
Lesser Armenia 88/3
Lesser Wallachia 1 74/1
Lethbridge, Canada 188/2
Letts 62/1
Leubingen 21/3
Leucosia 67/1
Leuke Kome, Red Sea 52/1
Leuthau, Battle of (1758) 157/3
Leuven 103/3
Levant 18, 38
Leventina J 55/2
Lewes, England 79/4
Lewis, Meriwether 182, 183/3
Lexington, Battle of (1775) 164, 165/3
Leyden, Siege of (1574) 158/1
Leyte 19671, 197/2, 235/3
Leyte Gulf, Battle of (1944) 235/3
Liangzhu 19/4
Lianyungang 255/3
Liao state 86, 8671,87
Liaoxi 49/4
Liberia 210/1 , 256/2, 266/1
Libya
630-1000 68/1
1880-1914 20671,206/1
1914-45 218/1 , 230/1 , 232/1
since 1945 260/1
education 1995 279/3
independence 1951 24672, 256, 25671
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
political system since 1939 256/2
population growth since 1945 274/1
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Lichtenburg 1 77/4
Lichtenstein 238/2
Liege 74/2, 103/3, 105/2, 135/2
Liegnitz (Legnica) 98/1,98/2, 99
Liepaja 181/3
Lier 103/3
Liling 31/3
Lille 103/3, 133/4, 232/1
Lima 122/2, 190/2
Lima-Callao 227/1
Limburg 103/3
Limerick 93/4
Limoges 166/1
Limousin, Viscounty of 92/1
Linares 102/1
Lincoln, Abraham 184
Lindenmeier 24/1
Lindisfarne 78/2
Lindow Moss 21/4
Linear A 36
Linear B 36
Lingen 157/3
Lingga Arch 197/2
Lingshou 31/3
Linqing 138/1
Linyi 52/2
Linz 134/1, 173/3
Linzi 49/4
Lipovets 158/1
Lippe 154/1
Lippe-Detmold 177/4
Lippeham 74/2
Lisbon
1300-1500 102/1, 105/2, 107/4
1800-1900172/2,210/1
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
colonial trade c.1770 130/1
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
population 1600-1800 128/1, 132/2,
132/3, 133/4
revolts 1618-80 156/1
silver trade 1650-1750 131/2
Spanish Road 152/1
Lisht 37/2
Literacy
since 1945 271, 278-79, 279/3
Lithuania
see also Poland-Lithuania
750-1450 62/1, 91, 91/3, 106
1500-1795 146, 146/1, 149/3, 150/1,
151/2, 151/5
1945-89 236/1 , 236/2, 238/2
fascism 1921-39 231/4
First World War 220/2, 221
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
Russian Revolution 1917-39 222/1
Second World War 232/1 , 233/3
since 1991 262, 262/1
Little Big Horn, Battle of (1876) 183/4
Little Entente 221/4, 231
Little Salt Spring 24/1
Liu Bang 48-49
Liu Shaoqi 254
Liudolfing dynasty 90, 90/1, 91
Liverpool 133/4, 169/2, 210/1, 232/1
Livingstone, David 205/3
Livonia
e. 1360 91/3
1500-1795 14671, 150, 151, 151/4
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
Russia 1462-1795 148, 149
Sweden 1500-1700 150/1,151/2
Livorno 133/4, 173/3
Lixus 38/3
Lloyd George, David 220
Llyn Cerrig Bach 21/4
Loango 136/1
Lobi 81/3
Locri, southern Italy 40/2
Locris, Greece 41/3
Lodeve, Viscounty of 1050 92/1
Lodi, Battle of (1796) 167/2
Lodi, Ibrahim 144
Lodomeria 151/5
L6dz 210/1
Lollards 106, 107/3
Lombard League 90
Lombards 5671, 57, 57/4, 76/1, 76/2, 77
Lombardy
500-1360 74/2, 75, 90, 90/1, 100/1
1500-1600 147
1815-70 174, 175, 175/2, 176, 17672
Lombardv and Venetia, Kingdom of 1 76/1
Lombok 119/2, 197/2
Londinium 54/1 , 55/2
London
800-1100 78/2, 79/3
1000-1500 93/4, 102, 102/1, 105/2,
106/1,107/4
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
growth and development 1600-1700
132-33, 133/5
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
population 1500-1800 128/1, 132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4, 168
population 1800-1900 210/1
science and technology 1500-1700 134,
135, 135/2
silver trade 1650-1750 131/2
since 1914 232/1, 274, 281/4
London, Treaty of (1915) 178-79/1
Long Island, Bahamas 193/3
Long Island, United States, Battle of (1776)
165/3
Long March, China (1930-36) 224/1
Long, Stephen Harriman 182, 183/3
Longlier 74/2
Longzhou 199/2
Lord Howe Island 247/2
Lorraine
1490-1700 146/1, 147, 153/2, 157/2
1815-71 177,177/4,216
since 1914 220
Lorsch 74/2, 75/3
Los Angeles 187/3, 274, 281/4
Los Millares, southern Spain 20/1
Lothal 29, 29/4
Lotharingia 90, 90/1
Louis I (the Pious), Prankish emperor 75
Louis II, King of Hungary 153
Louis IX, King of France 95, 95/5
Louis XIV, King of France 157, J57/2,
174
Louis XVI, King of France 166
Louis XVIII, King of France 167
Louis the Pious 75
Louis Philippe, King of France 173
Louisiana
1500-1800 124/1, 125, 125/3, 126, 127/2,
130/1
1800-1900 182, 182/1, 184, 184/1, 184/2,
185/3
Louisiana Purchase 182
Louisville 185/3, 187/3
Loulan 44/2, 53/1
Louvain 79/3, 107/4, 134/1
Lovelock Cave 25/2
Lowasera 22/1
Lowell, Francis 187
Lower Burma 197, 197/2
Lower Canada 188, 188/1, 189
Lowry Ruin 108/1
Loyalty Island 247/2
Loyola, Ignatius 155
Lozi 13671
Luanda 137, 204/1
Luba 13671
Liibeck
1300-1500 91, 91/3, 102/1, 105/2, 106/1,
107/4
1650-1750 129/2
1815-71177/4
Lubusi 23/4
Lucca 75/3, 103/2, 147/3, 17671, 176/2
Lucknow 194/2, 211/1
Lugansk 223/3
Lugdunum 54/1
Luhun people 31/3
Lukka 3671, 37/3
Lumbini 44/2
Lund 79/5, 134/1
Lunda 136/1, 204/1
Lundenwich 75/4
Luoyang
ilOO BC-AD 500 48, 53/1
500-1500 72/2, 104/1
1976 254/1
Luoyang, Battle of (1948) 225/2
Luristan 143/1, 179/1
Lusatia 152/1, 153/3
Liishun 198/1
Lusitania 54/1
Luther, Martin 154
Lutheran Reformation 1526-1765
146-47
Lutheranism 154-55, 154/1
Liitzen, Battle of (1632) 151/2, 153/3, 158/1,
159/2
Luxembourg
950-1500 90/1,103/3
1490-1700 153/2
1700-1914 171/3, 172/1, 177/3
1914-45 218/1 , 220/1 , 220/2, 233/3
since 1945 238/2, 272/1,273/3, 278/1,
279/2
Luxembourg dynasty 90/1, 106, 10671
Luxemburg, Rosa 223/2
Luxeuil 75/3
Luxor see Thebes, Egypt
Luzern 90/2, 155/2
Luzhou 199/4
Luzon 19/4, 119/2, 196/1,197/2
Lvov see Lemberg
Lyavlyakan 50/1
Lycandus 67/1
Lycia 55, 55/1
Lydenburg 23/4
Lydford 79/4
Lydia 41/3, 42, 42/1
Lyng 79/4
Lvons
500-1500 75/3, 92/1, 102/1, 107/4
to AD 600 45/4
1789-1900 166/1, 173/3, 210/1
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
population 1500-1800 128/1,132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
Reformation 1526-1765 155/3
revolts 1618-80 J5671
Lysimachus 43/4
Maastricht 103/3
Macassar (Ujung Padang) 65/3
Macassar-Gowa, Sultanate of 65/3
Macau (Macao)
see also Aomen
1450-1790 117/1, 118, 118/1,119/2,
131/1,138/1
1792-1914 19671, 199/2, 208/1
since 1999 247, 247/2
Macdonald Island 247/2
Macedonia
750-400 BC 41/3, 41/4
c. 1025 6672
1683-1913 178/1
Hellenistic civilization 600-30 BC 42/2,
42/3, 43
Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54,
54-55/1
since 1913 217/3
Macedonia, former Yugoslav Republic of
since 1989 264/1, 265, 265/3
Maeerata 103/2, 172/2
Machaquila, Mesoamerica 84/2
Machu Picchu, Inca Empire 110/1
Mackenzie, Alexander 188, 188, 188/2
Macon 93/5
Macon, County of 92, 92/1
Macquarie Island 247/2
Madagascar
500-1500 82, 82/1 , 83/2
1450-1770117/1,130/1
1700-1914 206/1, 208/1,210/1
since 1939 246/2, 256/1,256/2, 277/3,
280/3
Madain 69/1
Madaripur 280/2
Madeira 204/1, 246/2
Madingo-Kayes 23/3
Madras
1500-1790 119/2, 119/3, 131/1, 131/2,
144/2, 145/3
1770-1914 194, 195/3, 208/1,211/1
1930s 248/1
Madrid
1350-1500 J07/4
1500-1800 128/1, 132/2, 132/3, 134/1,
146/1,156/1
1800-1900 133/4, 210/1
1936-39 231,231/3
Madurai 47/3
Maes Howe, British Isles 20/1
Mafeking, Siege of (1899-1900) 206/2
Mafia Island 83/2
Magadan 223/3
Magadha 46, 46/1,62/1
Magan 28, 29/3
Magdeburg
950-1500 90/1,91/3, 107/4
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
1500-1700 135/2, 157/3, 159/2
Magdeburg, Siege of (1629/31) 158/1
Magellan, Ferdinand 116-17/1,116/2
Magenta, Battle of (1859) 176/2
Maghreb 62/1, 68/1
Magnitogorsk 223/3
Magyars
500-1356 67/1,67/3, 70, 76-77, 77/3,
77/4, 91
1900175/3
Mahagama 44/2
Mahathir bin Muhammad 251
Mahayana Buddhism 44/2, 63/3, 65
Mahdists 20671
Mahismati 47/3
Maijdi 280/2
Mailhac 21/3
Maine, United States 182/1
Maine, County of, France 92/1
Mainz
500-1500 75/3, 90/1,102/1, 107/4
1526-1700134/1,154/1
Maipo, Battle of (1818) 190/2
Majapahit Kingdom 65, 65/3
Maji-Maji 206/1
Majorca 38/3, 92/3, 105/2, 152, 152/1
Makasar, Celebes 118/1,119/2,196/1,
234/2
Makran 53, 53/1 , 69/1 , 69/2
Makwe 22/1
Malabar 194/1
Malabar Coast
1500-1790 118/1,119/3
Malaca, southern Spain 38/3, 40/2
see also Malaga
Malacca
750-1450 62/1
1500-1790 118, 118/1,119/2
1792-1860 19671
Malacca, Sultanate of
1200-1450 65/3
Malaga 102/1, 156/1
see also Malaca
Malaga, Battle of (1704) 174/1
Malagasy 206/1
Malang 251/3
Malao 52/1
Malawi 246/2, 247/4, 256/1 , 270/2, 278/1
Malaya
1800-1914 197/2, 208/1,211/1
since 1914 229/3, 234, 235, 250
Malayan Emergency 244, 245/1
Malaysia
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
democracy since 1914 268/1
employment patterns since 1965 250
independence 1957 247/2, 250/1
Japan 1995 253/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
since 1920 251
since 1920s 251/3
trade 1980 273/3
urban population 1990s 251/3
Malvinas see Falkland Islands
Male 139/2
Mali
20th century 246/2, 256/1 , 256/2
500-1500 62/1,8672,81
Malik Shah 88, 88/2, 94
Malinalco 111, 111/3
Malindi 118/1,130/1, 139/2
Malis 41/3
Mallia 3671
Malmo, southern Sweden 158/1
Maloyaroslavets, Battle of (1812) 167/2
Malplaquet, Battle of (1709) 158/1, 159,
174/1
Mal'ta 1673
Malta
1154-1300 101, 101/4
1556-1618 152/1
since 1914 232/1,246/2, 247/4
Malwa 89/4, 145/3
Mambava 196/1
Mamluk Empire 89, 89/5, 95, 98/1, 99,
99/3
Managua 226/1
Manchan, Peru 35/3, 84/1
Manchester
1750-1900 169/2, 172/2, 210/1
Second World War 232/1
Manching 21/4
Manchu Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) 131/1,
139, 198-99
Manchukuo (Manchuria) 200/3, 201, 224/1,
234/1,235/3
Manchuria
1368-1800 138/1, 139, 139/3
1800-1937 180, 180/1,199/2, 200/3, 201
1931-45 224/1, 225, 234, 235
Manco, Inca Emperor 121
Mandalay 19671, 251/3
Mandan, northern USA 183/3
Mandan people 183/4
Mande 136/1
Mandela, Nelson 257, 257
Mangalore 118/1, 130/1
Maniehaeism 62/1
Manila
1650-1770131/1,131/2
1792-1914 196/1,197/2
since 1914 234/2, 251 , 251/3, 281/4
Manipur 195/3
Manis 24/1
Manitoba 189, 189/3
Mannheim 159/2
Mansfeld 157/3
Mansfeld, Ernst von 159/2
Mansi 1867J
Mantinea, Battle of (418 BC) 41/4
Mantua 74/2, 103/2, 147/3
Mantua, Battle of (1796) 167/2
Manzhouli 255/3
Manzikert, Battle of (1071) 88, 88/1, 96,
9671
Mao, West Africa 81/3
Mao Zedong 224, 224/1, 244, 254, 255, 256
Maori Wars (1860-72) 202
Maoris 27, 202, 203, 203
Maracaibo 190/2
Maranhao 122/2
Maratha Confederacy 194, 194/1
Marathas 145, 145/3
Marathon, Battle of (490 BC) 41, 41/3
Maravi 130/1
Marburg 134/1
Marchand, Jean-Baptiste 205/3
Marchfeld, Battle of (1278) 90/1
Marco Polo see Polo, Marco
Marcomannic War 56
Marengo, Battle of (1800) 167/2
Marhashi 29/3
Mari 36/1
Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria 174, 174
Marianas
10,000 BC-AD 1000 26
c.1770 131/1
since 1914 201, 234/2, 235/3, 242/1,
247/2
Marie Galante 193/3
Marienburg 91/3
Marignano, Battle of (1515) 158/1, 159
Marinids 89/5
Mark, Germany 152/1
Marksville 25/i
Marmoutiers 154/1
Marne, Battles of 218, 219/2
Maronites 269/2
Marqasi 3671
Marquesas 2671, 27, 117, 246/2
Marrakech 204/1
Ma'rrat An-Nu'man 94/2
Marseilles
to AD 600 45/4
1100-1300101/4,102/1
1789-1900166/1,21671
fortifications 1450-1750 158/1
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
population 1600-1800 128/1, 132/2,
132/3, 133/4
revolts 1618-80 15671
Marshall Islands 201, 234/2, 235/3, 247/2
Marshall Plan 239, 244, 272
Martaban 65, 65/3, 196/1
Martinique 125/2, 127/2, 193/3, 247/3
Marugame 141/2
Maruyama 18/1
Maryland
1500-1770 124, 125, 126, 127
1861-65 184, 184/2, 185/3
Masada 45/3
Masat 3671, 37/3
Mascarenhas, Pedro de 117/1
Mascha 5J/1
Mashhad 104/1
Mashona 206/1
Massa 103/2, 17671, 176/2
Massachusetts 182/1
Massagetae 51/4, 53/1
Massawa 204/1
Massilia 4672
Masulip, eastern India 53/1,118/1, 119/2,
131/1,144/2,145/3
Mataram 64/2
Mathura 44/2, 47/3, 47/4, 53/1
Matola 23/4
Matsue 141/3
Matsumae 141/2
Mau Mau movement 257
Mauretania 54/1, 55, 55/3
Mauretania Caesariensis 54/1
Mauretania Tingitana 54/1
Mauritania 206/1 , 246/2, 25671 , 25672, 268/1
Mauritius
c.1770 130/1
1880-1914 208/1
20th century 247/2, 247/4, 272/1 , 273/3
Mauryan Empire 43, 46, 46/1, 51/4
Mawara Al-Nahr 69/2
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor 152
Maximilian, Ferdinand Joseph, Emperor of
Mexico 193
Maya
1200 bc-ad 700 33, 33/4
550-1500 84, 84/2, 85, 85/3
1500-1780 111, 111/3, 122/1
1980s 269/2
Mayapan 85/3, 111/3
Maykop 51/4
Mazandaran 142/2
Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal 156
Mazghuna 37/2
Mazzini, Guiseppe 176
Meadowcroft, North America 2673, 24/1
Meaux 155/3
Mecca (Makkah) 68, 139/2
Mechelen 103/3
Mecklenburg 90/1, 91, 253/3, 254/1
Mecklenburg-Schwerin 2 77/4
Meeklenburg-Strelitz 1 77/4
Medan 251/3
Medellfn, Colombia 227/1
Medemblik 75/4
Medes 39
Media 38/1, 42, 43/1
Median Empire 39/4
Medicine Hat 188/2
Medina 68, 68/1
Medina del Campo 102/1
Meerut 44/2
Megaris 41/3
Megiddo 3671, 37/2
Mehadia, Hungary 158/1
Mehmet II, Ottoman Sultan 97
Mehrgarh 19/3
Meiji period 200-1
Meissen 90/1
Melanesia 26, 2671, 116/2
Melbourne 202/1, 211/2
Melchiorites 154/1
Melilla 146/1,158/1, 204, 204/1
Melitene 67/1, 67/3
Melnik 7672
Melos 41/3
Meluhha see Indus civilization
Melville Islands 197/2
Memel 92/3
Memel Territory 220/2, 230/2
Memphis, Egypt 30, 3672, 37/2, 37/3, 38/3,
42/3
Memphis, Tennessee 185/3, 187/3
Menado 118/1, 119/2, 196/1
Menat 75/3
Mendaiia de Neira, Alvaro de 116-17/1,
116/2, 117
Mendoza, Chile 190/2
Menelaion 37/3
Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia 205
Menes, Ring of Egypt 30
Mengiicekids of Erzincan 88/3
Mengzi 199/2
Menier 22/2
Mennonites 154/1
Mentawai Islands 197/2
Mercia 79/3
Mercosur 273
Merida 102/1, 122/1
Merimde 22/2
Meroe 23/3, 30/1, 52/1
Merovingian dynasty 74, 75
Mersa Gawasis 3671
Merseburg 90/1
Mersin 37/3
Merta 144/2
Men 53/1,69/1
Mesa Grande, North America 108/1
Mesa Verde, North America 108, 108/1
Mesembria 40/2
Mesoamerica
500-1500 84-85, 110-11
7000 BC-AD 700 24/3, 25, 32-33
Mesopotamia
4000-1800 BC 28-29, 28/1,29/3
2000-600 BC 36, 38-39
500 BC-AD 400 55
Islam 630-1000 68-69/1, 69
Ottoman Empire 1500-1683 142/2, 143/1
Messembria 67/3
Messenia 41/3
Messina
1300-1500102/2,205/2
1500-1800 128/1, 133/4, 134/1,152/1,
156/1,158/1
1848-49173/3
Metaxas, Ioannes 231/4
Methone 41/4
Metternich, Prince von 174
Metz
400-1500 74/2, 75/3, 76/1, 102/1, 103,
106/1
1490-1700 147, 247/2, 153/2, 255/3
1789-94 166/1
Metz, Siege of (1552) 158/1
Metztitlan, Mesoamerica 111/3
Mewar 194/2, 195/3
Mexican Revolution (1910-40) 226
Mexican War (1846^18) 182
Mexico
500-1500 85, 85/4
1780-1910 191/3, 192, 193, 193/3
First World War 226/3
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
population 1700-1900 193, 210/1
revolution 1910-20 226
Second World War 226/4
since 1945 258, 258/1, 259/2, 259/3,
269/2, 283/3
slavery 1500-1880 126, 227/2
Spanish colonization 1492-1780 116/1,
117, 121, 122, 122/1, 123, 123/3
trade routes 1880-1914 208/1
United States expansion 1824-67 182,
183/3, 193/2
urban population 1920-50 22672
US influence 1914-45 227/2
Mexico City
1500-1780 122/1
1800-1900 21672
since 1914 22672, 274, 281/4
Mexico, Valley of
1400-1540 110-11,111/4
7000-1200 BC 24/3
Mezhirich 16/3
Michigan 182/1, 184/2
Micmac 124/1
Micronesia 2671, 27, 116/2
Micronesia, Federated States of 247/2
Middelburg 103/3
Middle Congo 20671
Midway, Battle of (1942) 234/2, 235
Midway Islands 246/2
Miesco I of Poland 70
Mihintale 44/2, 47/4
Milan
1350-1500 102, 103/2, 106, 106/1
1500-1600 14671 , 147, 147/2, 147/3
air pollution 1990s 281/4
banking and trade 1350-1500 107/4
Black Death 1347-52 105/2
Charlemagne 9th century 74/2
Christianity to AD 600 45/4
civil unrest 1820-49 1 72/2, 1 73/3
Habsburg Empire 1490-1797 152, 152/2,
274/2
Hunnic campaign 5th century 7671
population 1000-1500 102, 102/1,103/2
population 1500-1800 128/1,132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
population 1800-1900 21671
Reformation 1526-1765 154/2
Second World War 232/1
urban communities c.1500 103/2
Milazzo, Battle of (1860) 176/2
Miletus 37/3, 40, 40/2, 42/1
Milk Creek, Battle of (1879) 183/4
Millau, Viscounty of 92/2
Miller, southeast North America 25/2
Milosevic, Slobodan 264/1
Milton, England 79/4
Milwaukee 187/3, 210/1
Mimbres Valley 108/1
Mina, South America 25/4
Minamata 141/2
Mindanao 119/2, 19671, 197/2
Minden 74/2, 157/3
Mindoro 129/2, 29672, 297/2
Ming dynasty (1368-1644) 99, 105, 118/1,
138-39
Minh-mang, Vietnamese Emperor 197
Minneapolis 187/3
Minnesota 182/1,184/2
Minoan civilization 36, 3671
Minsk 181/3, 222/1 , 223/3
Mirabib 23/4
Miran 44/2
Miri 234/2
Misenum 54, 55/2
Miskolc see Mohi
Mison 52/2, 53/1
Mississippi
cultures 500-1500 109/3
state 182/1, 184, 184/1,184/2, 185/3
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Missouri state 182, 182/1, 184/2,
185/3
Missouri Compromise (1820) 184
Mistra 97
Mitannian Empire 37
Mitathal 29/4
Mitau 158/1
Mitla 85, 85/4
Mito 141/2
Mitterberg 21/3
Mitylene 67/3
Mixco Viejo 85/3
Mixtecs 85, 85/4
Miyako 141/2
Moa 196/1
Mobile, Alabama 185/3
Mobile Bay, Battle of (1864) 185/3
Moche culture 34/2, 35, 84
Modena
1000-1500 102, 103/2
1500-1618 147/3, 152/1
1800-70 172/2, 173/3, 175/2, 176/1,
176/2
Modon 105/2
Moesia 55/3
Moesia Inferior 54-55/1
Moesia Superior 54/1
Mogadishu
500-1500 62/1 , 82, 83/2, 139/2
1500-1790118/1,130/1
Mogador 23/3, 204/1
Mogarten, Battle of (1315) 90/1
Mogilev 181/3
Mogollon people 108, 108/1
Moguntiacum 54/1
Mohacs, Battle of (1526) 142/1, Ul, 153,
158/1
Mohenjo-daro 28/2, 29, 29/3, 29/4
Mohi (Miskolc) 98/2
Moji 200/1
Mokha 131/2
Moldavia
c.1400 106/1
1500-1683 142/1,146/1, 147
1683-1923 1 78/1
1945-89 236/1,236/2
Moldova 262/1, 279/2
Mollwitz, Battle of (1740) 157/3
Molodova 1 6/3
Moluccas (Maluku; Spice Islands)
1500-1790 117, 118/1,119/2, 119/3,
131/1
1790-1914 196, 196/1
Mombasa 118/1 , 130/1 , 139/2, 204/1 , 208/1
Monaco 147/3
Mondovi, Battle of (1796) 167/2
Mondsee 75/3
Monemvasia 142/1
Mongke, Great Khan 99
Mongo 136/1
Mongolia
1368-1800 138/1, 139/3
1800-1914 180/1, 199/2, 211/1
Second World War 235/3
Mongols 87, 89, 89/5, 97, 98-99, 138
Monmouth, Battle of (1778) 165/3
Monophysite Christianity 63/2
Monrovia 204/1
Mons, Low Countries 103/3
Mons, Southeast Asia 44/1
Monserrat 193/3
Mont Lassois 21/4
Montana 182/1
Montauban J55/3, 166/1
Monte Alban 32/2, 33, 85, 85/4
Monte Alban Empire 32-33, 32/2
Monte Bego 21/3
Monte Cassino 74/2, 75/3
Monte Verde, South America 24/1
Montenegro
c.1560 146/1
1900-18 216/2, 217, 217/3, 218/1,220/1
since 1989 264/1,265/3
Monterrey, Mexico 122/1, 227/1
Montevideo 122/2, 208/1, 210/1, 227/1
Montezuma Castle, North America 108/1
Montezuma I 110, 111, 120
Montezuma II 111
Montferrat 103/2, 147/3
Montmirail, Battle of (1814) 167/2
Montpellier
U00-1300 92/2, 92/3, 101/4, 102/1
1500-1800 134/1,155/3, 166/1
Montreal, Canada 189/3, 210/1
Montreal, Canada, Battle of (1775) 165/3
Montreal, Kingdom of Jerusalem 94/2
Montreuil 92/1
Montserrat 125/2, 247/3
Monza 75/3
Moravia
400-1360 70, 70/2, 71/4, 90/1
1490-1765 152/1, 153/3, 154/1
1700-1914 174/1,175/2
Morea, The
see also Peloponnese
1458-81 97/4
1500-1683 142/1,146/1
1683-1923 172/2, 178
Morioka 141/3
Mormons 182, 183/3
Morocco
1500-1800 136/1
democracy since 1939 256/2
First World War 218/1
French control 1880-39 206/1
Human Development Index 1994
279/2
independence 1956 246/2, 256/1
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
migration 1950 275/3
population 1700-1900 210/1
Second World War 232/1 , 233, 233/2
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Morotai 119/2, 196/1, 197/2, 235/3
Morro de Eten 34/1
Morropon 34/1
Mors 157/3
Moscow
see also Muscovy
1450-1770 134/1, 156/1,158/1
1800-1914 181/3, 210/1
since 1914 222/1,223/3, 263/3, 274,
281/4
Moscow, Battle of (1812) 167, 167/2
Mosquito Coast 125/2, 130/1
Mossi 80/1
Mossi States 204/1
Mos tar 267/3
Mosul 69/2
Mosyllon 52/1
Motecuhzoma see Montezuma
Mouila 23/3
Moundville, Mississippi 109/3
Mount Mycale, Battle of (479 bc) 41, 41/3
Mount Sinai 67/3
Moush 67/1
Mouzon 75/4
Mozambique
1500-179011671,130/1
1700-1914 204, 204/1,206/1, 207, 208/1,
210/1
democracy since 1939 256/2
education 1995 279/3
famines 1981-93 277/4
Gross National Product 1995 278/1
independence 1975 246/2, 256/1, 257
United Nations operation 1992-95
266/1
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Muciri 47/4
Mughal Empire 118/1, 119, 119/2, 144-45,
194
Muhammad, Prophet of Islam 68
Muhammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt 173
Muhlberg, Battle of (1547) 153, 158/1
Muhldorf, Battle of (1322) 90/1
Muitan 145/3
Mujib-ur-Rahman, Sheikh 249
Mukden see Shenyang
Mulhouse 232/1
Muitan 144/1, 144/2
Mundigak 19/3, 29/3, 50/1
Munhatta 19/3
Munich
950-1360 90/1
1800-1900 134/1, 173/3, 210/1
since 1914 223/2
Munich Agreement (1938) 231
Minister 154/1, 155,174/1
Miintzer, Thomas 155
Murbach 74/2, 75/3
Murcia 102/1 , 133/4, 152/1
Muret, Battle of (1213) 92/3, 93
Murfreesboro, Battle of (1862-63) 185/3
Murmansk 223/3
Murom 7672
Murshidabad 145/3
Mursili, King of the Hittites 36
Murzuk 204/1
Muscat 118/1, 130/1
Muscovy, Grand Principality of 148, 148/1
Muslims see Islam
Musovians 70/2
Mussolini, Benito 230, 231/4, 232
Muza, Red Sea 52/1
Muziris 53/1
Myanmar see Burma
Mycenae 37/3, 41/4
Mycenaean civilization 36, 36/1 ,37, 37/3
Myongju-mok 87/3
Myos Hormos, Red Sea 52/1 , 53
Myra 67/3
Mysore
1526-1765 144/4
1799-1914 194, 194/1,194/2, 195/3
1930s 248/1
Nabataean 52/1
Nabta,Playa 22/2
Nachtigal, Gustav 205/3
Naco/North America 24/1, 85/3
Nagajunakondra 47/4
Nagaland 249/3
Nagappattinam, southeast India 44/2, 47/3,
119/2, 145/3
Nagarjunakonda 44/2, 46/1,47/3
Nagas 249/3
1500-1867 118, 119/2, 119/3, 138/1,
141/2, 141/3
since 1914 200/1 , 235, 235/3
Nagorno-Karabakh
see also Karabakh
263/2
Nagoya 141/3, 211/1,252/1
Nahal Hemar 18/2
Nahal Oren 18/1
Naimans 62/1
Naju-mok 87/3
Nalanda 44/2, 47/4
Nam Viet 64, 64/1
Nam-Tun 1671
Nama 206/1
Namazga 50/1, 50/2
Namforsen 21/3
Namgyong 87/3
Namibia
see also German South- West Africa
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
education 1995 279/3
Human Development Index 1994 279/2
independence 1990 245/1 , 24672, 25671 ,
25672, 257
South African control 1915-90 257/3
United Nations operation 1989-90 26671
Namu 25/2
Namur 103/3
Nan Yue 52/2, 53
Nanchang 199/3, 199/4, 254/1, 255/3
Nancy 134/1,16671
Nandivardhana 47/3
Nanhai 49/4
Nanjing (Nanking)
1800-1911 198/1, 199, 199/2, 199/3,
199/4
since 1914 234/2, 254/1, 255/2
Nanjing, Treaty of (1842) 199
Nanning 199/2, 254/1 , 255/3
Nantes
800-900 75/4
1650-1800 129/2, 132/3, 133/4, 134/1 ,
166/1
Nantes, Edict of (1598) 155
Nantong 255/3
Nanzhao
see also Dili
618-907 72, 72/1, 73
907-1600 64, 65/3, 8671
Naoetsu 141/2
Napata 30/1
Naples
Black Death 1347-52 105/2
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
civil unrest 1820-49 172/2, 173, 173/3
fortifications 1450-1750 158/1
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
population 1000-1500 102, 102/1, 103/2
population 1500-1800 128/1, 132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
population 1800-1900 210/1
revolt 1647-8 156, J5671
Spanish Road 152/1
trade 1100-1500 101/4, 107/4
Naples, Kingdom of
1350-1500 106, 10671
1500-1600 146/1, 147, 147/3
France 1793-1815 167/2, 167/3
Great Schism (1378-1417) 107/3
Habsburg Empire 1556-1735 152/1,
174/1
House of Anjou 1300 92/3
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
urban communities c.1500 103/2
Napoleon I (Bonaparte) 137, 166-67,
166-67/2, 172, 177, 178
Napoleon III 176
Napoleonic Civil Code 167
Naranjo, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Narbo 54/1,55/2
Narbonne 6671, 75/4, 102/1
Narbonne, Viscounty of 92/1
Narim 148/2
Nariokotome 1 7/2
Narva 129/2
Narvaez, Panfilo de 120, 120/2, 121
Nashiro 141/2
Nashville, Battle of (1864) 185/3
Nasrids 92/3
Nassau 154/1, 177/4
Nasser, Gamal Abdel 261
Natal 204
Natchitoches 183/3
National Road, USA 186
National Socialists (Nazis) 231
Native American peoples
500-1500 108-9, 108/1,109/3, 109/4,
109/5
American Revolution 164
European colonies 1600-1763 124/1,
125, 126
since 1900 240, 241/2
US expansion 1793-1910 183, 183/4
NATO see North Atlantic Treaty
Organization
Natuna Islands 197/2
Naucratis, Egypt 23/3, 38/3, 40/2
Nauru 247/2, 247/4
Nauvoo 183/3
Navajo 108, 108/1, 109, 109/4, 183/4
Navarre
500-1500 92/2, 92/3, 93/5, 106/1
1500-1765 146, 146/1, 152/1, 154/1,
155/3
Naxcivan 263/2
Naxos 41/3, 142/1
Naxos, Duchy of 96, 9672, 97/3
Nazca culture 34, 34/2, 35
Nazis see National Socialists
Nazi-Soviet Pact 232
Ndebele 204/1, 205, 20671
Ndongo 136/1
Nea Nikomedeia 20/1
Neanderthal, France 17/2
Nebraska 182/1, 184, 184/2
Nebuchadnezzar 39
Nefa 195/3
Nefertiti 36
Negapatam 119/3
Negombo 119/2, 145/3
Negros, Philippines 119/2, 196/1, 197/2
Nehru, Jawaharlal 248
Nelson, Canada 188/2
Nemrut Dog 1672
Nenets 180/1
Neo-Babylonian Empire 39, 39/4
Neocaesarea 67/3
Neolithic era 50/1
Nepal 62/1, 63/3, 278/1
Nepena, Peru 34/1
Nerac 155/3
Nerchinsk 148/2
Nero, Roman emperor 45
Nestorianism 45/4, 63/2
Netherlands
Africa 1500-1800 137, 137/2
American Revolution 165
Asia 1500-1790 118-19, 119/2
Caribbean 1500-1780 124-25, 125/2
Caribbean 1830-1914 193/3
colonial empire 1600-1800 130,
130-31/1
colonial empire 1880-1914 208/1 , 209
colonial empire since 1939 246, 246/1 ,
247/3
economy 1620-1790 128-29
economy 1650-1750 129/2
exploration 1450-1600 116-17/1, 117
First World War 218/1 , 220/1 , 220/2
France 1789-1815 166, 16671, 167/2,
167/3
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2
Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152, 152/1,
153, 153/2
Holy Roman Empire 1500-1600 146,
14671
India 1605-1707 145, 145/3
industrialization 1830-1914 170, 170/1,
171/3
Latin America 1500-1780 122/2
Latin America 1830-1914 191/3, 192/1
military development 1450-1750 158,
159
North America 1500-1780 124-25, 124/1
population 1620-1790 128, 128/1
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1, 155
Second World War 232, 232/1, 233/2,
233/3, 235
since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 272/1, 278/1
slave trade 1500-1880 126-27, 12671
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Southeast Asia 1790-1914 196, 196/1,
197, 197/2
Southeast Asia from 1920 250, 25(1/1
trade 1620-1790 129
United Netherlands 1815-30 172/1,
172/2
unrest 1600-1785 156
urbanization 1470-1800 103/3, 132,
133/4
War of the Spanish Succession 1701—14
174
Neuchatel 155/2
Neuhausel, Battle of (1626) 159/2
Neuilly, Treaty of (1919) 220/2
Neusahl 107/4
Neustria 74, 74/2
Nevada 182/1, 184/2
Nevers, County of 92/1
Neville, North America 25/2
Nevis 125/2, 193/3
see also St Kitts and Nevis
New Bern 185/3
New Brunswick 189/3
New Caledonia 26/1, 247/2
New Deal 229, 241
New East Prussia 151/5
New Prance 125, 125/3
New Georgia Island, Pacific 235/3
New Granada (Vicerovaltv of)
1500-1780 123/3^130/1
1800-1900 190/1, 190/2, 191/3
New Guinea
to AD 1000 26, 2671
1450-1770117/1,131/1
since 1914 234/2, 235/3, 280/3
New Hampshire 182/1
New Haven, USA 1S7/3
New Hebrides 26/1 , 202/1
New Holland 131/1
New Jersey 182/1 , 185/3
New Mexico 182, 182/1,184/2, 193/2
New Model Army 156
New Orleans 184, 185/3, 187/3, 208/1,210/1
New Sarai 98/1
New Siberian Islands 180/1
New South Wales 203/2
New Spain (Vieeroyalty of) 123/3, 125/3,
130/1,190/1
New Vizcaya 122/1
New Westminster, Canada 188/2
New York Citv
1600-1763 124, 124/1
1800-1900 187, 187/3, 210/1
since 1945 274, 281/4, 243, 243
New York state 184/2
New Zealand
10,000 BC-AD 1000 26/1, 27, 27/4
British Empire 1880-1914 208/1
colonies 1945-98 246-47/2
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
computer ownership 283/3
economy since 1945 272/1
female suffrage 270
First World War 219
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
immigration 1500-1914 211/2
migration 1918-98 275/3
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
population 1800-1900 211/1
since 1790 202-3, 202/1,203, 203/3
Newcastle, England 93/4, 129/2, 232/1
Newcomen, Thomas 135, 135, 135/2
Newfoundland 78, 78/1, 117, 130/1, 189,
189/3
Newgrange, Ireland 20/1
Newton, Isaac 134
Nganasans 180/1
N'gazargamo 81/3, 204/1
Ngo Dinh Diem 251
Ngoni 136/1, 204/1, 205
Nguyen Vietnam 196/1
Nha Trang 250/2
Niah 52/2
Nias 197/2
Nicaea 45/4
Nicaea, Councils of 45
Nicaea, Empire of 95/5, 96, 96/2
Nicaragua
1492-1780 120-21, 122/1
1830-1910 193/3
1914-45 226-27/1 , 226/3, 226/4, 227/2,
229/3
conflict 1980s 269/2
ethnic composition 1990s 259/3
exports 1990s 258/1
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
migration since 1960 275/3
population growth since 1945 274/1
US intervention since 1945 227/2, 242/1 ,
243,245/1,259/2
Nice 1 76/2
Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia 222
Nicobar Islands 196/1, 197/2
Nicomedia55/l,67/J
Nicopolis 45/4, 67/1
Niger 206/1 , 246/2, 256/1, 256/2, 274/1
Nigeria
1880-1914 206/1 , 208/1
Biafran secession 1967 257
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
democracy since 1939 256/2
distribution of wealth since 1945 278
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
since 1939 246/2, 256/1, 257
Nihavand, Battle of (642) 69/1
Niigata 141/2, 141/3, 200/1
Nilmegen 74/2, 103/3
Ni'kolayev 222/1
Nimes, southeast France
896-1500 77/4, 92/1,102/1
1500-1794 155/3, 166/1
1800 133/4
Nineveh 39, 42/3
Ningbo
1500-1790 118/1, 119/3, 138/1
1800-1911 199/2
1980s 255/2, 255/3
Ningxiang 31/3
Nino Korin, Peru 35/3
Ninxia 98/1
Nippur 29/3
Nishapur 69/1, 98/1
Niuheliangl9/4
Niuzhuang 138/1, 199/2
Nivelle North, Battle of (1917) 219/2
Nivelle South, Battle of (1917) 219/2
Nixon, Richard M 242, 255
Niya 44/2, 53/1
Nizhne-Kolymsk 148/2
Nizhneudinsk 223/3
Nizhniv Novgorod (Gorkiv) 181/3, 222/1,
223/3
Nizhniy Tagil 223/3
Njimi 81/3
Njoro River Cave 22/2
Nkope 23/4
Nkrumah, Kwame 256-57
Noemfoor 235/3
Nogales, Mesoamerica 24/3
NoinUla 51, 51/4
Nok culture 23, 23/3
Non Nak Tha 19/4
Nonantola 75/3
Nordgau 74/2
Nordlingen, Battles of (1634, 1645) 151/2,
153/3,158/1, 159,159/2
Norfolk, Virginia 185/3
Norfolk Island 247/2
Noricum 54/1, 55/3
Norilsk 223/3
Norman Conquest of Britain 93
Normandy 79, 79/4, 92/1,93/5, 166/1
Normans 79
North America
see also Canada; United States of
America
to 500 AD 24-25, 25/2
500-1500 78, 78/1, 108-9
1600-1800 130-31
European colonization 1600-1763
124-25,124/1,125/3
European exploration 1450-1600 116/1,
116/2, 117
foreign investment in 1914 209/2
Great Depression 1929-33 228/1
immigration 1500-1914 211/2
Native American peoples 108-9, 109/4,
109/5
Seven Years War (1756-63) 188
slavery 1500-1880 127/2
North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) 243, 243/2, 273
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
242, 242/1, 244, 245/1, 265
North Carolina 182/1, 184, 184/1, 184/2,
185/3
North Dakota 182/1
North German Confederation (1867-71)
177,177/4
North Korea 244, 244/2, 255, 275/3, 277/4
North Ossetia 263/2
North Vietnam 250-51, 250/1,250/2
North West Frontier Provinces, India 194/2,
195/3, 248/1
North Yemen 266/1
Northern Borneo 21 1/1
Northern Circars 131/1, 194/1, 194/2
Northern Ireland 268-69, 269/3
Northern Rhodesia 206/1
Northern Territory, Australia 203/2
Northumbria 79/3
Northwest Territories, Canada 189/3
Norton, eastern North America 25/2
Norton, northwest North America 25/2
Norway
1300-1500 93/4, 106, 10671
1500-1795 14671, 147, 150, 150/1
female suffrage 270/1
First World War 218/1 , 220/1 , 220/2
fortifications 1450-1750 158/1
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2,
229/3
industrialization 1830-1914 171/3
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
religion 750-1450 62/1,107/3
Second World War 232, 2J2/1, 233/2,
233/3
since 1945 238/1 , 238/2, 272/1 , 278/1
urbanization 1800 133/4
Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/1, 78/2, 79
Norway and Sweden, Union of 1 72/1
Norwich 91/3, 102/1,232/1
Nottingham 79/3
Noumea 208/1
Nova Scotia 124/1, 125, 130/1, 188/1,189/3
Novgorod
700-1500 70, 71/3, 71/4, 78/2, 91/3,
107/4
1500-1750 148/1, 150/1, 158/1
since 1914 222/1
Novi, Battle of (1799) 167/2
Novipazar, Sanjak of 1 75/2
Novopetrovka 50/2
Novorossiysk 181/3, 222/1 , 223/3
Novosibirsk 223/3
Nowsharo 29/4
Noyon 74/2, 79/3, 92/1
Nu-pieds 156, 15671
Nubia
see also Kush
2686-2181 BC 30, 30/1
2000-1000 BC 36, 37
1200-600 BC 23, 39, 52/1, 53
religion 750-1450 62/1
Numantia 21/4
Nunavut Territory 189/3
Nupe 80/1, 137/2
Nur-al-Din 94
Nuremberg
1000-1500 103, 105/2, 107/4
1600-1800 129/2, 132/2, 133/4
1800-1900 210/1
Second World War 232/1
Nuremberg, Siege of 151/2
Nuzi 37/1
Nyamwezi 204/1, 205
Nyasaland 20671, 208/1
Nystadt, Treaty of (1721) 151
Oaxaca 122/1
Oaxaca Valley 24/3, 32-33, 85/4
Ohi Islands 19671
Obohogo 23/3
Oc Eo 52/2, 53/1
Oceania 209/2
Ochakov 158/1
Oconto, eastern North America 25/2
Octavian (Augustus) 54, 54
Ocucaje, Peru 34/2
Oda Nobunaga 87, 87/4
Odawara, Battle of (1590) 87/4
Odense 79/5
Odessa 181/3, 210/1,222/1, 223/3
Oecussi-Ambeno 197/2
Off-shore Island Crises (1954-55) 245/1
Ogodei, Great Khan 99
Ogooue 22/2
Oguz Turks (Seljuks) 62/1, 71/3, 71/4, 76,
77, 77/3, 88, 8671
OTIiggins, Bernardo 190/2
(Mm 182/1, 184/2, 185/3
Oil crisis 1973-74 272/2, 273
Ojeda 120/1
Okase 141/2
Okavama 141/3, 200/1 , 252/1
Okhotsk 148/2, 223/3
Okinawa 200/3, 235, 235/3, 252, 252/1
Oklahoma 182/1
Olbia 40/2
Old Crow Flats 16/3
Old Oyo 81/3
Old Phokaia 101/4
Oldenburg 177/4
Oldenburg dynasty 106
Olduvai Gorge 16, 1671, 17/2
Olmec culture 25, 32, 32/1
Olmiitz 134/1
Olomouc 102/1
Oloron 155/3
Olsen-Chubbock 25/2
Olszanica 20/1
Oma, Japan 141/2
Omaha, United States 187/3
Oman
150 BC-AD 500 53, 53/1
630-1000 69/1,69/2
1800-80 204/1
post-1945 260/1 , 270/2, 274/1 , 277/3, 279/2
Omo 1671
Omo Complex, Peru 35/3
Omsk 148/2, 223/3
Onahama 141/2
Onin Wars 87
Onion Portage 25/2
Onomichi 141/2
Ontario 188, 189, 189/3
OPEC see Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Opium Wars (1840-42, 1856-60) 198-99,
198/1, 209
Opone 52/1
Oporto 156/1, 172/2
Opplanians 70/2
Oran 146/1, 158/1
Orange, southern France 134/1, 155/3
Orange Free State 206/2
Orbask 79/5
Orbe 155/2
Oregon 182, 182/1, 184/2
Oregon Trail 182, 183/3
Orel 158/1, 181/3,222/1
Orenburg 181/3, 222/1
Organization of American States (OAS) 243,
243/2
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) 261, 272/2, 273
Orhan Ghazi 96
Orissa
1211-1398 89/4
1526-1765 144/4, 145/3
1800-58 194/1, 194/2, 195/3
1930s 248/1
Orkneys 78, 78/1, 78/2
Orleanais 147
Orleans
500-1500 74/2, 75/3, 75/4, 7671, 77/4
1526-1800 133/4, 134/1,155/3
Ormuz 104/1, 118, 118/1,139/2, 143
Orrellana, Francisco de 121/4
Orthez 134/1
Orthodox Church
600-1500 62, 63/2, 96, 9671 , 9672
1917-98 269/2
Orvieto 103/2
Orville 74/2
Osaka
1600-1867 140, 141/2, 141/3
1800-1930 200/1,21171
1995 252/1
Osama bin Laden 243, 261
Osceola 25/2
Oslo Agreement 260
Osman I, Ottoman sultan 96
Osnabriick 134/1
Ostiaks 148/2
Ostland, "Reichskommissariat" of 233/2
Ostrogoths 57, 57/4
Ostrogoths, Kingdom of the 67/1
Otaru 200/1
Otranto 77/4, 142/1
Otrar 98/1
Otsu 141/3
Otto I (the Great), Holy Roman Emperor 90,
90/1,91
Ottoman Empire
1025-1500 96-97, 97/4, 106/1
1500-1683 142-43, 143/3, 146/1, 147
1880-1914 20671
Africa 1500-1880 137, 20471, 205
Balkan Wars 1912-13 217/3
Black Death 1347-52 105
Byzantine Empire 1340-60 97/3
civil unrest 1821-30 172/2, 173
decline 1683-1923 178-79
First World War 218-19, 218-19/1,220/1,
221,221/3
fortifications 1450-1750 158/1
France 1793-1815 167/3
Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152-53,
152/1,153/3
industrialization 1830-1914170/1
Russian expansion 1795-1914 180/1
Triple Alliance 21672
Oudenaarde 103/3
Oudenaarde, Battle of (1708) 158/1, 174/1
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Oudh 1 94/1, 1 94/2, 195/3
Oudney, Walter 205/3
Oudtshoorn 257/3
Outeidat 22/1
Oveng 23/3
Overijssel 153/2
Oviedo, northern Spain 134/1, 172/2
Ovimbundu 204/1, 206/1
Oxford, England 79/4, 105/2, 134/1, 135/2
Oxley, John 202/1
Oxtotitlan, Mesoamerica 32/1
Oyo 80/1, 130/1, 137, 137/2
Ozette 109, 109/4
Oztoman 111/3
E3
Pabmavati 47/3
Paoatnamu, Peru 34/2, 35/3
Pachacamac 34/2, 35/3, 110/1
Pachacuti 110
Pacheoo, Peru 34/2, 35/3
Pacific War (1941-45) 252
Pacific, War of the (1879-83) 192/1
Pacopampa 25/4, 34/1
Pact of Steel (1939) 231
Padah Lin 18/1
Padang 1 1 9/2
Paderbom 74/2, 134/1
Padri War 196
Padua 103/2, 134/1
Paducah 185/3
Paekche 73/3
Pagan kingdom 64-65, 64/2
Painan 119/2
Pajajaran, Sundanese Kingdom of 65/3
Pakhoi 199/2
Pakistan
see also East Pakistan; West Pakistan
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
democracy since 1947 268/1
independence 1947 247/2, 248
migration 1945-98 275/3
territorial disputes since 1947 249, 249/3
United Nations operation from 1949
266/1
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Pakozd 175/4
Palaiokastro 37/3
Palatinate 146/1, 155
Palau 197/2, 235/3, 247/2
Palawan 119/2, 196/1, 197/2
Palembang 52/2, 119/2, 196/1 , 234/2, 251/3
Palencia, northern Spain 134/1
Palenque, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Palermo
1000-1500 102, 102/1,105/2
e.1560 146/1
1800-1900 172/2, 173/3, 210/1
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
fortifications 1450-1750 158/1
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
population 1500-1800 128/1, 132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
revolts 1618-80 156/1
Palestine
2000-46 BC 36, 37, 37/2, 38
1095-1291 94-95
since 1914 22i/3, 232/1, 260, 260/1,
261/2
Palestine Conflict (1947-49) 260, 26J/2, 266
Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
260, 261
Pallavas 4671, 46/2, 53/1
Pallka, Peru 34/1
Palma 134/1
Palmyra 45/4, 52/1
Pamirs 50/2
Pampa de Nazca, Peru 34/2
Pampa Grande, Peru 34/2, 35/3, 35/4
Pampa Koani, Peru 35/4
Pampa Rosario 34/1
Pamphylia 55/1
Pamplona 74/2, 172/2
Panama
1450-1780 117, 122/1,122/2
1830-1914 192/1, 193/3
1914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1, 227/2,
229/3
since 1945 242/1, 243, 258/1, 259/2,
259/3
Panama Canal 193/3, 208, 208/1,227/2
Panama City 227/1
Pafiamarca, Peru 34/2
Panay 119/2, 196/1
Panduranga 65/3
Pandy 197/2
Pandyas 46/1 , 46/2, 53/1
Panipat, Battle of (1526, 1556) 144, 144/1
Pannonia 54/1 , 55/3, 74/2
Panormus 38/3
Panticapaeum 40/2
Papal States
1350-1500 103/2, 106, 106/1
1500-1750 129/2, 146/1, 147/3
1800-70 1 72/2, 1 73/3, 176, 176/1,1 76/2
Paphos 37/3, 55/1
Papua 208/1,211/1
Papua New Guinea 247/2, 247/4, 250/1 ,
268/1,277/3,279/2
Paracas, Peru 25/4, 34, 34/1
Paraguay
1700-1914 191/3, 192/1,210/1
1914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1 , 229/3
1990s 258/1 , 259/3, 270/2
Paranagua 208/1
Paria 110/1
Parikania 43/J
Paris
200-1000 74, 74/2, 79, 79/3
1000-1500 92, 102, 102/1,105/2
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
civil unrest 1830^9 172/2, 173, 173/3
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
population 1500-1800 128/1, 132, 132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
population 1800-1900 210/1
printing press 1450-70 107/4
Reformation 1526-1765 155/3
revolts 1618-80 15671
Revolution 1789-94 1667J
science and technology 1500-1700 134,
135, 135/2
Second World War 232/1
silver trade 1650-1750 131/2
since 1945 274, 281/4
uprisings 1350-1500 10671
Paris Peace Conference (1919) 220, 221
Paris, Treaty of (1763) 188
Paris, Treaty of (1783) 165
Paris, Treaty of (1898) 197
Paris, Treaty of (1950) 239
Park, Mungo 205/3
Parma
500-900 74/2
1500-1618 147/3, 152/1
1737-1849 134/1,173/3, 174/1
1815-7017671,17672
population c.1500 103/2
Paros 41/3
Parral, New Vizcaya 122/1
Parrattarna, King of the Hurrians 36
Parthia 43/1
Parthian Empire 45, 52-3/1
Parthians 46, 4672, 51/4
Pasargadae 42/3
Pasei 118/1,119/2
Passarowitz, Treaty of (1718) 178-79/1,
17672
Passau 159/2
Passchendaele, Battle of (1917) 219/2
Passo di Corvo, Italy 20/1
Passy 135/2
Pasto 190/2
Pastures of Heaven 51/4
Patagonia 190/1,191/3, 192/1
Patala 47/3
Pataliputra 44/2, 47/3
Patan 144/1, 144/2
Patani 19671
Paterson, United States 187/3
Patharghata 280/2
Patna 131/1,144/1, 144/2, 145/3
Patras 67/3
Pats, Konstantin 231/4
Pattala 42/3
Pattani 119/2, 119/3
Patuakhali 280/2
Pau 134/1
Pavia 74/2, 75/3, 77/4, 103/2, 134/1
Pavia, Battle of (1525) 158/1, 159
Pazyryk 51, 51/4
Peace River, Canada 188/2
Pearl Harbor 234/2, 235
Peasants' Revolt (1381) 107
Pechenegs 71/3, 71/4, 76, 77, 77/3, 77/4,
88/1
Pecos, North America 108/1
Pedro I, Brazilian emperor 191
Peenemiinde 232/1
Pegu
1200-1450 65, 65/3, 104/1
1792-1914 194/2, 195/3, 196/1
Peiligang 19/4
Peishwa's Lands 194/2
Peking see Beijing
Pelagianism 45/4
Pelang 196/1
Peleset 37/3
Peloponnese
see also Morea, The
41/4
Peloponnesian War 431-4 BC 41, 41/4
Peltingen, Battle of (1743) 157/3
Pemba 118/1 , 204/1 , 206/1
Pembroke 93/4
Peng people 31/3
Peng Xian 31/3
Peninsular War 16671, 167
Pennsylvania 124, 182/1, 184/2, 185/3
Penza 181/3
Pentagon 243
Perak 119/2
Perestroika 237, 262
Pergamum 45/4, 54, 55/1,67/1
Pericles 41
Perigord, County of 92/1
Perigueux 74/2
Perinthus 55/1
Perm
1462-1795 148, 148/1, 148/2
1905-7 181/3
since 1914 222/1,223/3
Pemau 91/3, 158/1
Peron, Juan Domingo 259
P<5ronne 74/2
"Perpetual Crusade" 91, 91/3
Perpignan 102/1, 134/1
Perpignan, Siege of (1542) 158/1
Perryville, Battle of (1862) 185/3
Persepolis 42/3, 43, 53/1
Persia
see also Iran
c.6th century BC 51
1500-1790 118/1
1826-78179/3
Achaemenid Empire 750-30 BC 39/4,
40-41, 41/3, 42-43, 42-43/1,42/3
First World War 219/1 , 221/3
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
Islamic conquest 630-1000 68
nomad invasions 800 bc-ad 100 51/4
religion to AD 600 44/1
Russian occupation 1907-21 180/1
Safavid Empire 1500-1683 142-43
Persian Wars 492-79 BC 40-41, 41/3, 43
Perth, Australia 202/1, 208/1
Perth, Scotland 93/4
Peru
1780-1914 190, 190/1, 190/2, 191, 191/3,
192/1
1914-45 22673, 226/4, 227, 227/1,229/3
ethnic composition 1990s 259/3
exports 1990s 258/1
liberation campaigns 1819-21 190/2
population 1700-1900 193, 210/1
slavery 1500-1880 126, 127/2
Spanish colonization 1492-1780 117,
121, 121/4, 122, 122/2, 123, 123/3
trade c.1770 130/1
Perugia 103/2, 134/1
Pescadores Islands 119/2, 200/3
Peshawar 47/4, 104/1,144/1,144/2
Pessedjik 50/1
Pest 9671, 98/2, 99
see also Budapest
Petain, Henri Philippe 232
Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia 149, 151
Peterloo Massacre (1819) 173
Petersburg, Battle of (1864) 185/3
Petra 52/1
Petrarch 103
Petrograd 222/1
see also Leningrad; St Petersburg
Petropavlovsk 148/2, 223/3
Phaistos 3671, 37/3
Phaselis 40/2
Phasis 40/2
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 187/3, 210/1
Philadelphia, Turkey 97/3
Philip, Duke of Anjou 174
Philip II of Macedonia 43
Philip II (Philip Augustus), King of France
93, 95/4
Philip II, King of Spain 146, 147, 153
Philip V, King of Spain 174
Philippine Sea, Battle of the (1944) 235/3
Philippines
10,000 BC-AD 1000 26, 26/1
1500-1790 119/2
European exploration 1450-1600 11672,
117,117/1
European imperialism 1790-1914 131/1,
196-97, 197/2
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
population 1800-1900 211/1
Second World War 234/2, 235
since 1920 251
since 1945 247/2, 250, 250/1,251/3,
253/3, 280/3
trade since 1920s 251/3
Philippopolis 67/3, 97/4
Philips Spring, North America 25/2
Philistine 38
Philistia 38, 3673, 45/3
Phnom Penh 251/3
Phocaea 40/2, 41/4
Phocis 41/3
Phoenicia 38-39, 3672, 3673, 39, 45/3
Phoenicians 40/2
Phoenix Island 246/2
Phopo Hill 23/4
Phrygia 39/4, 41/3, 42/1
Phung Nguyen 52/2
Piacenza 103/2, 134/1
Picardy 103/3
Pichincha, Battle of (1822) 190/2
Picts 57/4
Pidie 118/1, 119/2
Piedmont
16th century 147/2
1820-79 172/2, 173, 174, 176, 17671,
176/2
Piedras Negras, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Pietermaritzburg 257/3
Pietersburg 257/3
Pike, Zebulon 182, 183/3
Pikillacta, Peru 35/3
Pilsen 159/2, 232/1
Pilsudski, General Joseph 231/4
Pilton 79/4
Pinang Islands 19671, 197/2
Pincevent 16/3
Pinggu 31/3
Pinto, Fernao Mendes 117/1
Pinzon 120/1
Piombino 147/3, 152/1
Pippin III (the Short) 75
Piraeus 41/3
Pisa
950-1500 94/1, 101, 101/4, 103/2, 105/2,
107/4
1500-1770 134/1, 147/3
Pistoia 103/2
Pitcairn Island 246/2, 247/4
Pittsburgh 187/3, 210/1
Pius IX, Pope 176
Pizarro, Francisco 117, 121, 121/4
Pizarro, Gonzalez 121/4
Plantagenet dynastv 93/5, 106, 10672
Plassey, Battle of (1757) 194, 194/1
Plataea 41/4
Plataea, Battle of (479 BC) 41, 41/3
Plato 40
Piatt Amendment 192
Plaza Agreement (1985) 253
Pliska 67/3
Plovdiv 102/1
Plymouth 133/4, 208/1 , 232/1
Plzen 102/1
Podhorze 15671
Podlesia 151/5
Podolia 142/1, 151/4, 151/5, 178/1,178/2
Point of Pines, North America 108/1
Poitiers
500-1500 74/2, 102/1
1500-1800 134/1, 155/3, 156/1, 166/1
Poitiers, Battle of (732) 68, 6671
Poitiers, Battle of (1356) 106/2
Poitou, County of 92/1, 93/5
Poland
1500-1795 146, 14671, 150-51, 151/5
1945-89 236, 23671, 237, 242/1, 244
barbarian invasions 100-500 56
Christianity 400-1000 71, 71/4
COMECON 238/2
crusades 1095-1291 94/1
dictatorship 1926-39 231/4
division by treaty settlements 1814-15
172/1
economy 950-1300 100, 100/1
ethnic homogeneity since 1930 264
First World War 220, 220/1, 220/2, 221
German settlement c.1360 91/3
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
Great Schism (1378-1417) 107/3
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
insurrection 1830s 173
military development 1450-1750 158,
158/1
Mongol Empire 1207-79 9672
Ottoman Empire 11683-1924 178/2
post-First World War alliances 221/4
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1, 155
religion 750-1450 62/1
revolts 1618-80 156, 15671
Russian expansion 1462-1815 149,
149/3, 180, 180/1
Second World War 230/2, 231, 232,
232/1,233/2,233/3
since 1989 264, 264/1, 265, 265/2
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Slavic states 800-1000 70, 70/2, 71/4
Sweden 1620-1710 151/2
Thirty Years War 1618-48 JS9/2
urban communities c.1300 102/1
urbanization 1500-1800 132/1, 132/2,
132/3, 133/4
war with Russia 1920 222, 222/1
Poland-Lithuania
1350-1500 106, 106/1
1462-1795 147, 150, 151/4
Political systems
world 1914 160/1
Pollution 280-81, 280/1,281/4, 281/5, 282,
282
Pol Pot 213
Polo, Marco 86
Polotsk 158/1
Poltava 181/3
Poltava, Battle of (1709) 149, 151, 158/1
Polynesia 26/1, 27,116/2
Pomerania
950-1360 90/1,91
1500-1795 150/1, 151, 154/1, 159/2
1815-71 1 77/4
Pomona, Mesoamerica 84/2
Pomongwe 22/1
Pompey, Roman emperor 54
Ponce de Leon, Juan 116/1,120/1
Pondicherry 144/2, 145/3
Pont-a-Mousson 134/1
Ponthieu, County of 93/5
Ponthion 74/2
Pontus 54, 55/1
Port Arthur, Canada 188/2
Port Arthur, China 208/1
Port au Choix, North America 25/2
Port Elizabeth, South Africa 257/3
Port Guinea 20671, 208/1,210/1
Port Hudson, Battle of (1863) 185/3
Port Jackson (Sydney) 202, 202/1
Port Macquarie, Australia 202/1
Port of Spain 208/1
Port Zeelandia 131/1
Port-au-Prince 227/1
Porter, North America 25/2
Portland, Oregon 183/3, 208/1
Porto Alegre 227/3
Porto Bello 130/1
Portugal
900-1300 92/2, 92/3, 102/1
1350-1500 106, 106/1,107/3
1500-1600 146, 146/1
1800-1911 199/2
since 1945 238/2, 239, 273/3
Africa 1500-1880 81, 81/2, 137, 137/2,
204/1
Africa 1880-1939 206/1, 207
Asia c.1580 118/1
civil unrest 1820-26 1 72/2, 173
colonial empire c.1770 130, 130^)1/1
colonial empire 1880-1914 208/1
colonial empire since 1945 246-47/2,
24672,247
dictatorship 1926-1939 231/4
exploration 1450-1600 116-17, 116-17/1
First World War 216/2, 218/1, 219
France 1793-1815 167/2, 167/3
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
Habsburg Empire 1556-1640 152/1,
153
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
industrialization 1830-1914 170/1,
171/3
Latin America 1500-1830 122/2, 123,
190/1, 191
population 1620-1790 128, 128/1
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
religion 750-1450 62/1
revolts 1640-68 156, 1567J
Second World War 232/1, 233/2
slave trade 1500-1880 126-27, 12671,
204
Southeast Asia 1792-1914 196/1, 197/2
Southeast Asia since 1920 250/1
urbanization 1500-1800 132/1,132/2,
132/3, 133/4
fosen 173/3, 177/4
Potosi 122/2, 190/2
Poulo Condore 196/1, 197/2
Poznan 70/2, 71/4
Prague
800-1000 70, 70/2, 71/3, 71/4
950-1500 90/1, 102/1,106/1
1618-1800 133/4, 134/1,156/1, 159/2
1848-49173/3, 174
1989-96 264/1
Prambanan 65
Pratigiyotisapura 47/3
Pratisthana 47/3, 47/4
Pravarapura 47/3
Prayaga 47/3
Predmosti Qafzeh 16/3
Premyslid dynasty 70, 70, 70/2
Preslav 102/1
Pressburg 134/1 , 1 73/3, 1 75/4
see also Bratislava
Pretoria 257/3
Pretoria, Battle of (1900) 206/2
Prevlaka 26671
Priaman 119/2
Primo de Rivera, Miguel 231, 231/4
Prince Albert, Canada 188/2
Prince Edward Island 188/1, 189, 189/3
Prince George, Canada 188/2
Prince Rupert, Canada 188/2
Princeton, Battle of (1777) 265/3
Principe, Africa 204/1
Propkopyevsk 223/3
Protestant Reformation 1526-1765 154-55
Protestantism
see also individual denominations
1490-1785 152, 155/2, 155/3
1917-98 269/2
Provence
200-900 74, 74/1, 74/2
950-1400 90/1, 92/3, 92/1,92/2, 92/3,
93/5, 101/4
Providence, USA 1S7/3
Province Wellesley 196/1
Provins 100/1, 101
Prussia
see also East Prussia; Teutonic Order of
Prussia
962-1336 91, 91/3
1462-1795 150, 151, 151/4, 157, 157/3
1915-71 172, 177, 277/3, 177/4, 216
France 1789-1815 166, 16671, 167,
167/2
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
partitions of Poland 1772-95 151/5
Thirty Years War 1618-48 159/2
Pskov 91/3, 181/3, 222/1 , 223/3
Ptolemv I, King of Egypt 43, 43/4
Ptuj 45/4
Pucara de Andagala 110/1
Puccaro, Peru 35/3
Puebla, Mexico 122/1
Pueblo Bonito 108, 108/2
Pueblo Grande 108/1
Pueblo peoples 85, 108, 108/1
Puerto Hormiga 25/4
Puerto Rieo
1500-1880 117, 120, 120/1,122/1, 125/2,
127/2
1830-1914 191/3, 192, 193/3, 208/1
since 1914 226, 247/3
Pulicat 129/2, 119/3, 144/2, 145/3
Pundravardhana 47/3
Punic Wars 54
Punjab
1849-1914 194, 194/2, 195/3
since 1914 248/1,249/3
Punjab States Agency 248/1
Pura 42/3
Purusapura 47/3
Puskalavati 47/3
Putin, Vladimir 263
Putivl 158/1
Putun Maya S5/3
Putuo Shan 44/2
Pyangyang 44/2, 198/1
Pylos37/3
Pyramids 30, 33
Pyrenees, Peace of the (1659) 153
Pyrzyczanians 70/2
Pyu 44/1, 64, 64/1
Q_adesh 3672, 37/3
Qadesh, Battle of (1275 Be) 37
Qara Khitai 88/3, 89, 9672
Qarakhanids 69/3, 88, 8S72 , 88/3
Qaraqorum 98/1
Qarmatians 69/3
Qatar 260/2, 272/2, 277/3, 279/2
Qi state 48/1
Qiang people 31/3
Qin Shi Huang Di 48, 49
Qin State 48, 48/1
Qing dynasty see Manchu Qing
Qingdao 299/2, 254/1 , 255/2, 255/3
Qingjiang 32/3
Qingliangang 19/4
Qiongzhou (Hainan) 139/3
Qiqihar 254/1
Qishan 31/3
Qom 69/1
Quadi 56, 5671, 5672
Quadisiyya, Battle of (636) 68, 69/1
Quanrong (Kunyi) people 31/3
Quanzhou 104/1 , 138/1 , 139/2
Quarashahr 104/1
Quauhtochco 111/3
Qubilai Khan 64, 99
Quebec 164, 164/2, 165, 188, 189, 189/3
Quebec Act (1774) 164, 188
Quebec, Battle of (1775) 165/3
Quedlinburg 90/1
Quelimane 204/1
Quentovic 75/4, 78, 78/2
Quesada, Jimenez de 121/4
Queseir 30/1
Quesnel 188/2
Quezon City 251/3
Quiery 74/2
Quilon 118/1, 119/2, 145/3
Quionzhou see Hainan
Quirigua, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Quiros, Pedro Fernandez de 116-17/1,
116/2, 117
Quispisisa, Peru 34/1
Quito 110/1,121/4, 122/2, 190/2
Quizilbash 142-43
Quyang 31/3
Qwaqwa 257/3
Rabaul 234/2, 235, 235/3
Rabih 20671
Radagaisus 56, 57
Raetia 54/2, 55/3, 74/2
Ragusa 67/3, 101/4, 142/1, 146/1
Ragusa, Republic of 178/2
Rain, Battle of (1632) 151/2
Rajagriha 47/3
Rajmahal 144/1, 144/2
Rajputana 144/4, 194/2, 195/3, 248/1
Rajputs 245/3
Rakonitz, Battle of (1620) 159/2
Raleigh, North Carolina 1S5/3
Ramillies, Battle of (1706) 158/1,174/1
Ramses III 37
Ranchillos 110/1
Rangoon
c.1770 131/1
1792-1914 29672, 208/1
1930-90 234/2, 251 , 251/3
Rangpur 29/4
Rann of Kutch 249/3
Ranthambor, Battle of (1569) 144/1
Ras al-Junayz 29/3
Rasulids S9/5
Ravenna
500 dc-ad 400 54, 55/2
400-1500 74/2, 75/3, 76/1,103/2
1526-1765 154/1
Ravenna, Battle of (1512) 158/1, 159
Ravensburg 107/4
Raychikhinsk 223/3
Raymond of St Gilles 94/1
Rayy 98/1
Reading 79/3
Reagan, Ronald 242
Real Alto 25/4
Red Deer, Canada 188/2
Red Guards 254
Red River Colony 188-89
Red River Rebellion 189
Red Russia 151/5
Reform Acts (1832/1867) 173
Reformation 154-55
Regensburg 74/2, 102/1, 135/2, 159/2
Regensburg, Battle of (1809) 167/2
Reggio 134/1, 172/2, 173/3
Regina, Canada 188/2, 189/3
Rehe 224/1,225,234/1
Reichenau 75/3
Reims
500-1500 74/2, 75/3, 77/4, 92/1,107/4
1789-94 16671
Remiremont 74/2
Remojadas, Mesoamerica 32/2
Ren people 31/3
Renaissance 103
Renner, North America 25/2
Rennes 134/1, 166/1
Repton 79/3
Republican Party, USA 184, 240, 241
Reunion 130/1, 247/2
Reval (Tallinn)
1350-1500 92/3, 207/4
1500-1795 149, 150, 150/1
since 1914 222/1
Rhagae 42/3
Rhapta, eastern Africa 52/1, 53
Rhenish Bavaria 1 77/4
Rhenish Prussia 2 77/4
Rhine, Confederation of the 267/2, 177
Rhine Palatinate 90/1, 152/1, 154/1
Rhine-Ruhr 274
Rhineland 100, 100/1, 220, 230/2, 231
Rhode Island 124/1, 182/1
Rhodes
600 BC-AD 500 42/1 , 42/3, 43/4
527-1360 67/1, 67/3, 97/3
1500-1770 142/1, 146/1, 152
Rhodesia
see also Zambia; Zimbabwe
1700-1914 20671 , 208/1 , 210/1
since 1945 257
Rhuddlan 93/4
Riau 196/1
Riau Arch 197/2
Riazan 148/1
Ribe 79/5
Rieoi, Matteo 138-39
Richard I, King of England 95/4, 101
Richelieu, Cardinal 156
Richmond, England 93/4
Richmond, Virginia 184, 185/3
Riel, Louis 189
Rieti 103/2
Riga
700-1500 72/3, 91, 91/3, 107/4
1462-1795 129/2, 149, 150, 250/2, 158/1
1800-1914 181/3, 210/1
since 1914 222/2
Riga, Battle of (1917) 218/1
Riga, Treaty of (1920) 222/1
Rijeka see Fiume
Rim 22/1, 22/2, 23/3
Rimini 103/2
Ringsted 79/5
Rio Azul, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Rio Bee, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Rio de Janeiro 122/2, 130/1, 210/1, 227/1,
281/4
Rio de la Plata (Viceroyalty of) 130/1, 190/1
Rio de Oro 206/1 , 208/1 , 210/1
Rio Grande Pueblos 108/1
Rio Treaty (1947) 242/1
Ripuarians 74, 74/1
Risorgimento 176
Riverton, North America 25/2
Rivoli, Battle of (1796) 167/2
Robert of Flanders 94/1
Robert of Normandy 94/1
Robespierre, Maximilien 166
Rocroi, Battle of (1643) 15671, 159, 159/2
Rocroi, Battle of (1648) 153
Roermond 103/3
Rohil-Khand 194/1,194/2
Rojidi 29/4
Rollo, King 79, 79/4
Roma people 265
Romagna 90/1, 147/3
Roman Catholicism
1000-1500 96, 9672, 106-7
Latin America 1830-1914 193
Reformation 1526-1765 154-55, 155/2
religious conflict 1917-98 269/2
Roman Empire
500 BC-AD 400 54-55, 55/3
barbarian invasions 56-57
Byzantine Empire 66
early exploration by 116
Franks 200-900 74
Holy Land 45/3
nomads 4th-5th century 51/5, 76/1, 77
religion to AD 392 44/1 , 45/4
trade 150 BC-AD 500 52, 52/1, 53
Romania
1830-1914 171/3, 17671, 217/3
1914 220/1
1945-89 23672, 237, 238/2, 244
dictatorship 1938-39 231/4
economic development 1990-97 265/2
ethnic homogeneity since 1930 264
First World War 21672 , 220/1 , 220/2, 221,
221/4
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
Second World War 232/1, 233/2, 233/3
since 1989 264, 264/1, 265
Triple Entente 216/2
Romano-Britons 57/4
Romanov dynasty 149
Rome
c.1560 14672
banking and trade 1350-1500 107/4
Black Death 1347-52 105/2
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
Christianity to ad 600 45/4
civil unrest 1831-49 172/2, 173/3, 176
crusades 1095-1291 94/1
fortifications 1450-1750 15671
Franks 500-900 74/2, 75/3
population c.1300-1500 102/1,103/2
population c.1500-1800 128/1, 132/1,
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
population 1800-1900 210/1
printing press 1450-70 107/4
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54, 54/1 ,
55/2
trade routes 150 bc-ad 500 52/1
unification of Italy 1815-71 176/2
Visigoths 390-420 57/3
Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) 231
Roncesvalles 74/2
Rong people 31/3
Roonka Flat 16/3
Roosevelt, Franklin D. 229, 241
Ropar 29/4
Roquepertuse 21/4
Rosario, Argentina 227/1
Roskilde 79/5
Rossbach 157/3
Rostock 91/3, 102/1,107/4, 134/1
Rostov-on-Don 148/1, 158/1,181/3, 222/1,
223/3
Rotterdam 103/3, 129/2, 210/1 , 232/1
Rouen
800-1500 74/2, 75/4, 79/4, 102/1,106/1
1500-1765 128/1,129/2, 132/1,132/2,
155/3, 156/1
1789-94 166/2
Second World War 232/1
Rouergue, County of 92/1
Roussillon 146/1, 152/1
Ruan-Ruan/Avars 51/5
Ruandi-Urundi
see also Burundi; Rwanda
206/1
Rudna Glava, southeast Europe 20/1
Rugians 7671, 77
Rum 88/2
Rumelia 142/1
Rupert's Land 124/1, 125/3, 189, 189/3
Rus 66, 67/1, 70, 71, 77, 77/3
Russia
see also Commonwealth of Independent
States; Russian Federation; Soviet
Union
400-1000 70, 71, 71/4
1500-1795 146, 146/1, 148-49, 148/2,
149/3
0.1770130-31/1
1795-1914 180-81, 180/1, 181, 181/2,
181/3,208/1,209
China 1800-1911 199, 199/2
civil unrest 1825-31 172/2, 173
civil unrest 1848-49 174-75
Decembrist Revolution 1825 1 72/2
European exploration 1450-1600 117/1
First World War 216/1 , 216/2, 217,21 7,
218-19, 218-19/1, 220/1, 221, 222/1
fortifications 1450-1750 158/1
France 1789-1815 167, 167/2, 167/3
Holy Alliance 1815 172
industrialization 1830-1914 170/1,171/3
Japanese War 1904-5 201, 201
migration 1500-1914 211/2
migration 1918-98 275/3
Mongol Empire 1207-79 98/1,99
Ottoman Empire 1683-1923 178, 179/3
Poland 1772-95 151/5
Poland-Lithuania 1462-1672 151/4
population 1700-1900 210-11/1, 210/1
religion 750-1450 62/1
revolts 1618-80 156, 156/1
Revolution 1917-1939 219, 222-23
since 1989 262, 263/3
Sweden 1500-1795 150, 150/1
trade 950-1300 100
treaty settlements 1814-15 172/1
Vikings 800-1100 78, 79
Russian Federation
1970s 23672
since 1991 262/1, 263
Russian Principalities 102/1, 106/1
Russian Revolution
1905 181
1917 222-23
Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) 180, 181
Ruthenians 1 75/3
Rwanda
1500-1800 136/1
c. 1840 204/1
since 1939 24672, 25671 , 25672, 26671 ,
275/3, 278/1
Ryazan 222/1
Ryukyu Islands 197/2, 200/3, 252/1
S Hertogenbosch 103/3
S-m-k-rts 78/2
Sa Huynh 52/2, 53/1
Saar 220/2, 233/3
Saarland 230/2
Saavedra, Hernando Arias de 116-17/1,
116/2, 117
Saba 193/3
Sabah 250/1
Sabotiers 156/1
Sabratha 38/3
Sacajawea 182
Sacul, Mesoamerica 84/2
Sado Island 141/2
Safavid Empire 118/1, 142-43, 143/3
Saga 141/2
Sagamihara 141/2, 252/1
Saganoseki 141/2
Sahara Desert 22/1
Sahr-i Sohkta 50/1
Saidor 235/3
Saigo 141/2
Saigon 196/1, 197/2
see also Ho Chi Minh City
Sailendras 64/2, 65
StAcheull7/2
St-Amand 75/3
St Andrews, Scotland 93/4, 134/1
St Augustine, Florida 185/3
St Barthelemy, Lesser Antilles 193/3, 247/3
St Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) 155
St Christopher, Lesser Antilles
see also St Kitts and Nevis
193/3
St Croix 125/2, 130/1, 193/3
St-Denis, France 74/2, 75/3
St-Dizier, Siege of (1544) 158/1
St Domingue 125/2, 127, 127/2, 130/1, 190/1
see also Haiti
St Emmeram 75/3
St Eustatius 193/3
St Gall 75/3
St Germain-des-Pres 75/3
St Germain, Treaty of (1919) 175, 221
St-Gilles 101/4
St Helena 130/1,246/2, 247/4
St John, Canada 189/3, 208/1
St John, Lesser Antilles 193/3
St John Island, China 11S/1
St Kitts 125/2
St Kitts and Nevis 247/3
St-L6 79/3
St Louis, United States 183/3, 186/1,187/3,
210/1
St Louis, West Africa 22/2, 130/1, 204/1
St Lucia 125/2, 193/3, 247/3
St-Malo 130/1
St Martin, Lesser Antilles 193/3, 247/3
St Maximin 75/3
St-Medard 74/2, 75/3
St Mihiel, Battle of (1918) 219/2
St Moritz 21/3
St-Omer 74/2, 103/3
St Paul, Minnesota 1S7/3
St Peter, Lands of 74/2, 75/3
St Peter, Patrimony of 90/1 , 147/3, 1 7672
St Petersburg
see also Leningrad; Petrograd
1450-1795 134/1, 149, 158/1
1800-1914 172/2, 181/3, 210/1
St Pierre and Miquelon 130/1, 189/3, 246/2
St-Quentin, Battle of (1557) 158/1, 159
St Riquier 74/2, 75/3
St Thomas, Lesser Antilles 130/1,193/3
St Trond 107/4
St Vincent, West Indies 125/2, 193/3, 247/3
Saint-Germain, Treatv of (1919) 175, 220/2,
221
Saintonge, County of 92/1
Saipan 235/3
Saka 43/1
Sakai 141/3, 200/1 , 252/1
Sakala 47/3
Sakas 46, 4671, 4672, 51, 51/4, 53/1
Sakata 141/2
Sakatchi-Alyan 50/2
Sakha 263
see also Yakutia
Sakhalin 1 80/1, 200/3
see also Karafuto
Sakuzi 23/3
Saladin 89, 94, 95/3
Salamanca 102/1 ,134/1, 231/3
Salamanca, Battle of (1706) 174/1
Salamanca, Battle of (1812) 16672
Salamis 37/3
Salamis, Battle of (480 Be) 41, 41/3
Salayar 197/2
Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira 231/4
Salerno 101/4, 103/2, 134/1,172/2
Salghurids 8673, 89
Salians74, 74/1,90,90/1
Salinas la Blanca, Mesoamerica 24/3
Salmon, North America 108/1, 108/2
Salona 45/4
Salonae 54/1
Salonika see Thessalonica
Salt Lake City 1S3/3
Salts Cave, North America 25/2
Saltukids of Erzerum 88/3
Saluzzo 147/3
Salvador, Brazil 227/1
Salzburg
500-1500 74/2, 75/3, 107/4
c.1770 134/1
1803-1914 174/1,175/2
Samanids 69, 69/3
Samar 19671 , 197/2
Samara 148/2, 181/3, 222/1
Samaria 45/3
Samarqand
150 bc-ad 500 53/1
630-1500 69/1, 72, 72/1,98/1, 99, 104/1
1928-39 223/3
Sambas 119/2, 196/1
Samnites 54
Samoa 26, 2671
Samogitia 151/5
Samori 206/1
Samos 142/1
Samosata 67/1
Samoussy 74/2
Samoyeds 148/2
Samudra 62/1, 119/2
Samun Dukiya 23/3
Samurai 87, 140
San Candida 45/4
San Diego, Mexico 208/1
San Diego, Peru 34/1
San Francisco 187/3, 208/1,210/1
San Jacinto, Battle of (1836) 182
San Jose, Costa Rica 227/1
San Jose Mogote, Mesoamerica 24/3, 32/1,
32/2
San Juan 208/1
San Lorenzo, Mesoamerica 32/1
San Luis Potosi, New Spain 122/1
San Marino 147/3
San Martin, Jose de 190/2, 191
San Pedro de Atacama, Peru 35/3
San Rafael, Central America 24/1
San Salvador 226/1
San Sebastian, Spain 152/1
Sancerre 166/1
Sanchi 44/2, 47/4
Sand Creek, Battle of (1864) 183/4
Sandakan Death March 234/2
Sandwich 75/4
Sang-I Chakmakh 50/1
Sanga 82
Sangihe Islands 196/1,197/2
Sangiran 1 7/2
Sangju-mok 87/3
Sango 23/4
Sannai 18/1
Sanshui 199/2
Santa Cruz, Battle of (1942) 235/3
Santa Fe, USA 183/3
Santa Fe Trail 182, 183/3
Santa Maria Bogata 121/4
Santa Marta, Colombia 121/4
Santa Marta, Mesoamerica 24/3
Santa Rita, Mexico 85/3
Santa Rosa, Peru 34/2
Santiago, Chile
1400-1780 110/1, 121/4, 122/2
1800-1900 190/2, 210/1
since 1914 227/1,281/4
Santiago, Cuba 122/1,130/1
Santiago, Guatemala 122/1
Santiago de Gompostela, Spain 134/1
Santo Domingo
see also Dominican Republic
1500-1800122/1,127/2
1800-1914 190/1,191/3
1914-45 227/1
Sao Paulo, Brazil 227/1, 274, 281/4
Sao Paulo de Loanda, Southwest Africa
130/1
Sao Thome, southeast India 145/3
Sao Tome & Principe, Africa 204/1 , 206/1 ,
256/1
Saone 94/2
Sapporo 200/1, 252/1
Saqqara 37/2
Saragossa see Zaragoza
Sarai 104/1
Sarai Nahar Rai 18/1
Sarajevo 267/3
Sarandip
see also Ceylon; Sri Lanka
89/4
Saratoga, Battle of (1777) 165, 165/3
Saratov 181/3, 222/1 , 223/3
Sarawak 19671 , 197/2, 208/1 , 211/1 , 250/1
Sardinia
2000-1000 bc 36/1 , 37/3
c. 800 BC 38/3
c.1560 146/1
1815-70 172/1, 176/1,176/2
Black Death 1347-52 105/2
crown of Aragon 1300 92/3
First World War 220/1
France 3 793-1815 16671, 167/3
Genoese territory 1015-1300 101, 101/4
Habsburg Empire 1556-1720 152/1,
174/1
Phoenician settlement c.800 BC 38/2
Pisan territory 1015-1300 101, 101/4
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
Roman Empire 500 BC-AD 400 54, 54/1,
55/2, 55/3
Second World War 232/1, 233/2
Triple Alliance 1882 216/2
urbanization 1500-1800 132/1, 132/2,
132/3, 133/4
Sardis 42/3
Sargon I, King of Akkad 28
Sargon II, King of Assyria 39
Sarkel 78/2
Sarmatians 51, 51/4, 53/1,56/2, 57/3, 76/1
Sarmiento, Pedro de 116-17/1, 116/2, 117
Sarmizegetusa 55/1
Sarnath 44/2, 47/4
Sarnowo, northern Europe 20/1
Sarskii Fort 78/2
Sasanian Empire 44/1 , 45, 50, 51/5, 68,
69/1
Sasebo 200/1
Saskatchewan 189, 189/3
Saskatoon, Canada 188/2
Satavahana kingdom 53/1
Satavahanas 46, 46/1 , 46/2
Saudi Arabia
democracy since 1914 268/1
economy since 1945 272/1
Human Development Index 1994 279/2
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
population since 1945 274/1
since 1945 260/1,261
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Saul, King of Israel 38
Saumur 155/3
Sauromates 51/4, 53/1
Savannah, USA 185/3
Savannah, Battle of (1779) 165/3
Savery, Thomas 135
Savona 101/4
Savov
950-1500 90/1, 103/2, 106/1
1500-1765 146/1,147/2, 147/3, 152/1,
155/3
1789-94 1 6671 ,174/1,1 76/2
Saxons 56, 56/2, 57/4, 74/1
Saxony
500-900 74/2, 75
c.1560 146/1
economy 950-1300 100, 100/1
German unification 1815-71 177/4
Habsburg Empire 1618-1700 153/3
Holy Roman Empire c.950-1360 90/1
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1, 155
religion 750-1450 62/1
Slavic states 800-1000 70/2, 71
Sayil, Mesoamerica 84/2
Scandinavia
8000-200 BC 21
800-1300 78-79, 100
Scapa Flow 208/1
Schaffhausen 90/2, 155/2
Schaum-Burguppe 1 77/4
Schemnitz 135/2
Schio 135/2
Schleswig 154/1, 177/4
Schleswig-Holstein 1 77/3
Schlieffen Plan 218, 219/2
Schwaz 107/4
Schweidnitz, Battle of (1642) 159/2
Schweigen 74/2
Schweinfurt 232/1
Schweinfurth, Georg August 205/3
Schwiebus 157/3
Schwyz 90/2, 155/2
Scoggin, North America 25/2
Scotland
900-1300 93, 93/4
c.1560 146/1
colonies in Canada 188-89, 18871
Great Schism (1378-1417) 107/3
Hundred Years War (1337-1453) 106
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
revolts 1618-80 156, 156/1
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
urbanization 1500-1800 132/1, 132/2,
132/3, 133/4
Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/1, 78/2
Scotti 57/4
Scythians 51, 51/4, 53/1
Sea Peoples 37, 37/3
Seattle 208/1
Sebastea 67/1, 67/3
Sechin Alto, Peru 34/1
Second World War
Africa 256
Asia 1931-45 234-35
effects 238-39, 238/1, 246, 272
Europe 232-33
India 248
Latin America 226/4, 227
Middle East 260
United States 227
Versailles Treaty 221
Sedalia Trail 183/3
Sedan 155/3
Segovia, Spain 156/1
Segu 130/1, 136/1,204/1
Segusio 54/1
Seibal, Mesoamerica 32/1, 84/2
Seilles 74/2
Selestat 74/2
Seleucia 67/1, 67/3
Seleucids 43, 43/4
Seleucus 43, 43/4
Selim I (the Grim), Ottoman sultan 142/1,
143
Selinus 40/2
Seljuk Sultanate, Great 88-89, 88/2, 94,
94/1
Seljuks 88/3, 94/1 , 94/2, 95/3, 96, 98/1
Selkirk, Lord 188-89
Selwyn, G A 202/1
Semarang 251/3
Sembiran 53/1
Semipalatinsk 223/3
Sendai 141/2, 141/3, 200/1 , 252/1
Senegal
750-1450 62/1
1800-80 204/1,206/1
1939 24672, 25671, 25672, 277/3, 279/2
Sennar 204/1
Sens 79/3
Sentis 74/2
Senusret I 37/2
Senusret III 37/2
Seoul
see also Hanyong
to AD 600 44/2
1800-1911 198/1
1960-1990s 274, 281/4
Sephardim 142
Septimania 74/1 , 74/2
Sequeira, Diogo Lopes de 117/1
Serampore 119/2, 145/3
Serbia
c.1400 106/1
c.1560 74671
Byzantine Empire 1025-1360 96/1,97/3
First World War 216/2, 217, 218, 220/1
Habsburg Empire 1718-39 174/1
industrialization 1830-1914 1 71/3
Ottoman Empire 1389-1878 97, 97/4,
142/1 , 1 78/1 , 1 78/2, 21 7/3
Second World War 233/2
since 1989 264/1, 265, 265/3
urban communities c.1300 102/1
Serbs
200-1500 74/2, 96
1900-1914 175,175/3
since 1989 265, 265/3, 267/3, 269/2
Serpent Mound, North America 25/2
Serres 67/1
Serrey 157/3
Sesklo, southeast Europe 20/1
Sevastopol 181/3, 222/1
Seven Day Battle (1862) 185/3
Seven Weeks War (1866) 177
Seven Years War (1756-63) 123, 125, 125/3,
128, 164, 188
Seville
1000-1500 102, 102/1,107/4
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
colonial trade c.1770 130/1
population 1600-1800 128/1, 132/2,
132/3, 133/4
revolts 1618-80 156/1
silver trade 1650-1750 13J/2
Sevres, Treaty of (1920) 179, J79/4, 220/2,
221/3
Seychelles 208/1,247/2, 247/4, 273/3
Shaanxi province 224
Shaftesbury 79/4
Shah Jahan, Mughal Emperor 145
Shah-Armanids 88/3
Shahdad 29/3, 50/1
Shahr-i Sohta 29/3
Shama 137/2
Shandong 225
Shang civilization 30-31, 32/2, 31/3
Shanghai
1368-1644 138/1
1800-1911 198/1, 199/2, 199/3, 199/4,
208/1,211/1
since 1960 254/1 , 255/2, 255/3, 274
Shanghai, Battle of (1949) 225/2
Shangqiu 31/3
Shanidar 17/2, 18/1
Shantou 138/1 , 199/2, 255/3
Shaoxing 138/1
Shashi 299/2
Sheffield, England 133/4, 210/1,232/1
Shekelesh 37/3
Shenandoah Valley, Battle of (1864) 1S5/3
Shenyang 254/1, 255/2, 281/4
Shenyang, Battle of (1948) 225/2
Sher Shah 144
Sherden 37/3
Sherihum 29/3
Shetland Islands 78, 78/1, 78/2
Shevardnadze, Edward 263
Shi Huang Di 48, 49
Shiite Islam
750-1450 63, 88/1
1500-1680 143
since 1917 260-61, 260/1, 269/2
Shijiazhuang 254/1 , 255/2, 255/3
Shillacoto 34/1
Shiloh, Battle of (1862) 1S5/3
Shilou 31/3
Shimoda 141/2
Shimonoseki 141/2
Shimosuwa 141/2
Shintoism 63, 63/3, 73/4, 269/2
Shirakawa 141/2
Shiraz 69/2, 104/1
Shitomir 223/3
Shizugadake, Battle of (1583) 87/4
Shizuoka 141/3, 200/1
Shoa 23672
Shoebury 79/4
Shona 23672
Shongweni 23/4
Shortugai 29/3
ShouXian 199/4
Shrewsbury 93/4
Shu 53/1
Shuangduiji 225/2
Shum Laka 22/2
Shuzhou 299/4
Siak 19672
Siam
see also Thailand
to 500 AD 19
750-1500 62/2,63/3
1500-1790 118/1,119/2, 119/3
1790-1914 19671, 197, 197/2
since 1914 229/3
Siberia
to AD 500 24/1
1500-1800 139, 149
1800-1914 180, 181, 199
since 1918 237, 275/3
Siberut 197/2
Sibir, Khanate of 148
Sican culture 84, 84/1
Sicilia 54/1
Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two
1130 9671
1815-70 172/1, 172/2, 173/3, 176, 2 7672,
27672
Sicily
1200-400 BC 37/3, 38/3, 40, 40/2
950-1300 100, 100/1, 101, 101/4, 102/1
1350-1500 106, 107/3
0.1560 24672
Black Death 1347-52 105/2
Byzantine Empire 527-1025 67/1
civil unrest 1820-49 172/2,173/3
Habsburg Empire 1490-1814 152, 152/1,
174/1
Holy Roman Empire 1194-1268 90
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
population c.1650 128/1
Roman Empire 500 bc-ad 400 55/2, 55/3
Second World War 233, 233/2
Triple Alliance (1882) 22672
unification of Italy 1859-70 176/2
urbanization 1500-1800 132/1,132/2,
132/3, 133/4
Sicuani, Peru 35/3
Side 67/3
Sidon 3672 , 38, 42/3
Siena
1500-59 147/3
Black Death 1347-52 104, 105/2
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
Habsburg Empire 1556-1618 252/2
population c.1300-1500 102/1,103/2
Siena, Siege of (1556) 158/2
Sierra Leone
1450-1600 116
1700-1914 206/1 , 208/1 , 210/1
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
democracy since 1939 256/2
Gross National Product 1995 278/1
independence 1961 24672, 25671
standard of living since 1945 278
United Nations operation from 1998
26671
Sigeum 41/4
Sigirya 44/2
Siguenza 134/1
Sijilmasa 81/3
Sikhism 248, 248, 249/3, 269/2
Sikkim 194/2, 195/3, 248/1
Silesia
950-1360 71/4, 90/2, 92/3, 98/2
1490-1700 14671 , 152/1 , 153/3, 154/1 ,
157/3, 159/2
1700-1871 174/1, 177/4, 196/1
Silistria, Black Sea 258/2
Silk Road 47, 47/4, 52, 52-53/1, 72
Silla kingdom 73, 73/3, 73/4
Simao 299/2
Simbirsk 282/3
Sinai 260, 261/3
Sind
630-1000 69/1
1526-1765 144/4
1843-1914 194/2, 195/3
1930s 248/1
Singapore
1500-1790 118/1, 119/2, 131/1
1792-1914 196, 19672, 297/2, 208/1
air pollution 1990s 281/4
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
computer ownership 283/3
democracy since 1914 268/1
economy since 1945 272/1
independence 1963 247/2, 250/2
Japan 1995 253/3
population 1990s 251/3
Second World War 234/2, 235
since 1920 251
trade 1980 273/3
Singhasari 65
Singidunum 7672
see also Belgrade
Singkil 19671
Sinkiang 62/1
Sino-French War (1883-85) 198/1, 199
Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) 198, 198/1,
199, 201
Sinop 45/4
Sinope 40/2
Sioux 183/4
Sipan, Peru 34/2, 35, 35/4
Siraf 83/2
Siraj-ud-Daula, Nawab of Bengal 194
Sirba 81/3
Sirmium 67/1 , 7672
Sironj 144/2
Sistan 69/2, 69/2, 88/2
Sitagroi, southeast Europe 20/1
Sitka 208/1
Siwa 42/3, 81/3
Six Nations 164
Skara Brae, British Isles 20/J
Skipton 93/4
Skopje 67/1
Slave Coast 237/2
Slavonia 174/1, 267/3
Slavs
500-1356 66, 70-71, 7672, 77/3, 91,
96
Slezanians 70/2
Slovakia
c.1000 7274
1921-39 230/2
since 1939 233/2, 264/1, 265, 265/2
Slovaks 275/3
Slovenes 2 75/3
Slovenia 264/2 ,265, 265/2, 265/3
Sluys, Battle of (1340) 106/2
Smetona, Antanas 231/4
Smith, Adam 128
Smolensk
c.1000 70, 71/4
1450-1795 149, 158/2
1905-7 181/3
since 1914 222/1
Smyrna 67/3, 97/3, 179/4, 210/1
Snaketown, USA 108, 108/1
Society Islands 2671, 246/2
Socotra 118/1, 130/1
Soest 91/3
Sofala 83
Sofia 97/4, 102/1 , 223/2, 264/1
Sogdiana53/2, 72/1
Sogyong 87/3
Sokhumi 263/2
Sokoto 81/3, 204/1
Solferino, Battle of (1859) 17672
Solidarity trade union 264
Solis, Juan Diaz de 120/1
Solomon, King of Israel 38
Solomon Islands
10,000 BC-AD 1000 2671
1450-1600 117
since 1914 234/2, 247/2, 247/4
Solothurn 90/2, 155/2
Somali 82, 23672
Somali Republic 25672, 25672
Somalia
750-1450 62/1
since 1945 242/1,246/2, 266/1, 267,
274/1,277/4
Somaliland see British Somaliland; French
Somaliland; Italian Somaliland
Sombrerete, New Vizcaya 122/1
Somerset Levels, British Isles 20/1
Somme, Battles of the (1916, 1918) 218,
218/3, 219/2
Somme Bionne 21/4
Somosierra Pass, Battle of (1808) 16672
Song dynasty 86, 8672 , 87, 87/2, 98/1 , 99
Songhay Empire 80/1, 81
Songjiang 138/1
Sophocles 40
Sopron 21/4
Sorbs 70/2, 71, 74/2
Sosan 44/2
Sotho 136/1
Sotka-koh 29/4
Soto, Hernando de 120/2, 121
South Africa
British Empire 1880-1914 206/1,208/1
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
computer ownership 283/3
democracy since 1939 256/2
education 1995 279/3
female suffrage 270/1
First World War 219
mandates 1939 246/1
migration 1918-98 275/3
since 1939 257, 257/3, 257/4
South African (Boer) War (1899-1902) 189,
206, 20672, 207, 217
South America see Latin America
South Asia
since 1920 248-49
South Australia 203/2
South Carolina
admission to United States 182/1
American Civil War 184, 185, 185/3
slavery 126, 184/1, 184/2
South Dakota 182/1
South Georgia 24672, 247/4
South Korea
car ownership and production 1990s
282/1
computer ownership 283/3
distribution of wealth 278
Japan 1995 253/3
Korean War 242/1 , 244, 244/2
migration 1918-98 275/3
trade 1980 273/3
South Ossetia 262, 263/2
South Prussia 152/5
South Sandwich Group 24672, 247/4
South Tyrol 230/1
South Vietnam 250/2
Southampton, England 79/4, 101/3, 232/1
Southeast Asia
10,000 bc-ad 1000 26
150 bc-ad 500 52, 52/2, 53/1
500-1500 64-65
1790-1914 196-97
since 1920 250-51
immigration 1500-1914 222/2
population 1800-1900 222/2
trade 1200-1450 65/3
Southern Netherlands
1556-1618 152/2
Southern Rhodesia 20672
Southwark 79/4
Soviet Union
see also Russia; Russian Federation
1928-39 223/3
1945-89 236-37, 236/1, 236/2
since 1989 262-63, 264
China since 1949 254, 255
Cold War 242-43, 244-45
COMECON 238/2
Cuban Missile Crisis 244, 245/3
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
economic development 1945-89 236-37,
237/3
European colonialism since 1945 247
female suffrage 270/1
First World War 220/2, 221, 221/3, 221/4
industrialization 1928-39 223, 223/3
interventions overseas 245/1
labour camps 223/3
occupation of Poland 1939 230/2
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
Russian Revolution 1917-39 222, 223/3
Second World War 232-33, 232/1 , 233/2,
233/3, 235/3
Spanish Civil War 231
Soweto 257/3
Spain
1500-1600 146, 146/1
1600-1785 156, 156/1, 157
since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 239, 273/3,
275/3, 282/1
Africa 1800-80 204, 204/1
Africa 1880-1939 206/1
American Revolution 165
Asia 1500-1790 119/2
barbarian invasions 100-500 56, 57
Caribbean 1500-1780 120-21, 122-23,
122/1, 123/3, 124-25, 124/1, 125/2
civil unrest 1820 172, 172/2
colonial empire c.1770 130, 130-31/1
colonial empire 1880-1914 208/1
colonial empire since 1945 246-A7/2,
246/1
Counter-Reformation 1526-1765 155
economy 1620-1790 128, 129/2
exploration 1450-1600 116-17/1, 116/2,
117
fascism 1923-39 231, 231/3, 231/4
First World War 218/1
France 1793-1815 166, 166/1, 16672,
167, 167/3
Great Depression 1929-33 228/2, 229/3
Habsburg Empire 1490-1700 152/1,
153
Habsburg Empire 1700-1919 174, 174/1
industrialization 1830-1914 170/1, 171,
171/3
Islamic dynasties 630-1300 68/1,88,
92/2, 93
Italian lands 1500-59 147/3
Judaism 1500 bc-ad 600 45
Latin America 1500-1780 120-21,
122-23, 122/1,122/2, 123/3
Latin America 1770-1914 190-91, 190/1,
191/3, 192
North America 1500-1780 120-21,
124-25,124/1,125/3
North America 1793-1910 182/1
Phoenician settlement, c.800 bc 38/2
population 1620-1790 128, 128/1
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
religions 600-1500 63
Roman Empire 500 BG-AD 400 54
Second World War 232/1, 233/2
slave trade 1500-1880 126-27, 126/1
Southeast Asia 1792-1914 196-97,
196/1
urbanization 1500-1800 132/1,132/2,
132/3, 133/4
Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/2
warfare 1450-1750 158-59, 158/1,
159/2
Spalato 67/3
Spanish Civil War (1936-39) 231, 231/3
Spanish Guinea 208/1 , 210/1
Spanish March 74/2
Spanish Morocco 206/1 , 21 0/1 , 232/1 , 233/2
Spanish Netherlands
1500-1765 154/1, 157/2, 159/2
Spanish Road 152/1, 153
Spanish Sahara 20671
Spanish-American War (1898) 192, 226
Spanish Succession, War of the (1701-14)
174,174/1
Sparta 40-41, 41/3, 4V4, 43/4
Speke, John Hanning 205/3
Speyer 74/2
Sphakteria, Battle of (425 Be) 41/4
Spice Islands see Moluccas
Spina 40/2
Spirit Cave 18/1
Spiro, Mississippi 109/3
Split 105/2
Spoleto 74/2, 103/2
Spotsylvania, Battle of (1864) 185/3
Sravana Belgola 47/3
Sravasti 47/3
Srebrenica 267/3
Sri Lanka
see also Ceylon; Sarandip
600 BC-AD 600 44/1, 44/2, 46, 47
since 1948 247/2, 247/4, 249, 249/3,
269/2
Sriksetra 52/2
Srinagar 144/1
Srivijaya Empire 64/2, 65
Srubnaya culture 50/2, 51
Stalin, Joseph 222, 223, 233, 236, 242,
244
Stalingrad 223/3
see also Tsaritsyn
Stalingrad, Battle of (1942-43) 233
Stalino 223/3
Stalinobad 223/3
Stalinsk 223/3
Standards of living
since 1945 278-79
Stanley, Falklands 208/1
Stanley, Henry Morton 205/3
Stanwick 21/4
Staraia Ladoga 70, 71/3, 71/4, 78/2
Starbard 91/3
Starcevo, southeast Europe 20/1
Stare Hradisko 2V4
Staufen dynasty 90, 9071, 102
Staveren 75/4, 91/3
Stavropol 181/3
Sterkfontein 16/1
Stettin 91/3, 107/4, 150/1
Sticna 21/4
Stirling 93/4
Stockholm
1350-1500 91/3, 107/4
1500-1800 129/2, 132/3, 133/4, 134/1,
156/1
1800-1900 210/1
1990s 281/4
Stolypin Reforms 181
Stone Tower, Kushan Empire 53/1
Stonehenge 21/3
Stormberge, Battle of (1899) 20672
Straits Settlements , 196, 197/2
Stralsund
1300-1500 91/3, 102/1, 107/4
1500-1700 150/1,158/1, 159/2
Strasbourg (Strassburg)
1697-1770 133/4, 134/1, 154/1
1789-94 166/1
Strassburg (Strasbourg)
500-1500 75/3, 102/1,107/4
Stroganovs 148
Stuart, John McDouall 202/1
Sturt, Charles 202/1
Stuttgart 1 73/3
Styria 90/1,174/1
Su Site, North America 108/1
Subawa 197/2
Subiaco 107/4
Suceava 102/1
Sucre, Antonio Jose de 190
Sudan
1800-1914 205, 206/1,208/1
droughts 1984-98 277/4
independence 1956 246/2, 256, 25671
migration 1918-98 275/3
political system 256/2
since 1945 260/1
US intervention 242/1
Sudetenland 230/2, 231
Sueves 56-57, 57/3, 57/4, 7671, 77
Suez 131/2
Suez Canal 208, 260/1, 261, 261/3
Suhar 69/1
Suharto, Raden, Indonesian president 251
Suide 31/3
Suifenhe 255/3
Sukadana 65/3, 119/2, 196/1
Sukas 37/3
Sukhothai 65/3
Sula Islands 119/2
Sulawesi 52/2, 65/3
Suleiman I (the Magnificent) 142/1
Sultaniyya 98/1
Sulu Arch 119/2, 196/1, 197/2
Sulu Islands 65/3
Sulu, Sultanate of 65/3
Sumatra
150 bc-ad 500 52/2
800-1500 62/1, 63/3, 64/2
1500-1790 118/1, 119/2, 119/3, 131/1,
139, 139/2
1792-191419671,197/2
1990s 251/3
Sumatrans 64/2
Sumba 197/2
Sumbawa 119/2
Sumer 28, 28/1, 29/3
Sumerians 53
Sun Yat-sen 199, 224, 225
Sundgau 153/2
Sungir 1673
Sunni Islam 88/1, 260-61, 260/1,269/2
Sura 144/2
Surabaya 251/3
Surakarta, Java 196/1 , 251/3
Surat 118/1,119/2, 145/3, 194, 210/1
Surinam 130/1
see also Dutch Guiana
since 1914 227/1 , 246/2
Surkotada 29/4
Surparaka 47/3, 47/4
Siirttemburg Baden 1 72/1
Susa 42/3
Sutkagen-dor 29/4
Sutter's Fort 183/3
Suvarnagiri 47/3
Suzhou 138/1 , 199/2, 211/1 , 254/1 , 255/2
Svein Forkbeard 79
Svendborg 91/3
Sverdlovsk
see also Yekaterinburg
223/3
Svodin, eastern Europe 20/1
Swabia 90/1, 153/3
Swahili settlement 82, 82/1, 83
Swartkrans 16/1
Swazi 204/1, 205
Swaziland
1880-1914 206/1
since 1914 24672, 247/4, 256/1 , 268/1 ,
279/3
Sweden
1350-1500 106, 106/1,107/3
1500-1795 14671, 147, 150-51, 150/3
colonial trade c.1770 130/1
First World War 218/1 , 220/1 , 220/2
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
industrialization 1830-1914 170/1, 171/3
military development 1450-1750 158
Napoleonic Europe 1796-1815 167
Reformation 1526-1765 154/1
religion 750-1450 62/1
revolts 1618-80 156, 156/1
Russia 1462-1795 149, 149/3
Second World War 232/1 , 233/2, 233/3
since 1945 238/1 , 238/2, 272/1 , 278/1
trade 950-1300 100
urbanization 1500-1800 133/4
Vikings 800-1100 78, 78/2, 79
warfare 1450-1750 158/1, 159/2
Swedish War (1630-34) 159/2
Swellendam 257/3
Swiss Confederation
see also Switzerland
1291-1529 90/2
c.1400 106/1
1500-1600 146, 146/1,147/3
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
urbanization 1500-1800132/1, 132/2,
132/3, 133/4
Switzerland
see also Swiss Confederation
1291-1529 90/2
1815 172/1
First World War 21 8/1 , 220/1 , 220/2
industrialization 1830-1914 171, 171/2,
171/3
Reformation 1526-1765 155, 155/2
revolts 1618-80 156/1
Second World War 232/1 , 233/2, 233/3
since 1945 238/1, 238/2, 272/1, 278/1
Syagrius 74, 74/1
Sybaris 40/2
Sydney 202, 211/1 , 281/4
Syracusae 54/1
Syracuse 40/2, 187/3
Syria
2000-30 BC 36, 37, 37/2, 42/1, 43, 43/4
c.1560 146/1
crusades 1095-1291 94
European trade 1100-1300 101/4
First World War 221/3
Great Seljuk Empire 1092 88/2
Greek colonies 750-400 bc 40, 40/2
Islamic conquest 634-644 68, 68/1 , 69
Ottoman Empire 1500-1683 143/1
Ottoman Empire 1683-1920 179/1
Roman Empire 500 bc-ad 400 54, 55/1,
55/3
Second World War 232/1 , 233/2
since 1945 24672, 260, 260/1, 261, 261/3,
269/2, 277/3
Syriam 118/1, 119/2
Syrian Limes 55/2
Syzrun 222/1
Tabaristan 69/1, 69/2
Tabuk 68/1
Tacna 190/2
Tadmekka 81/3
Tagara 47/3
Taggenburg 155/2
Tagliacozzo, Battle of (1268) 90/1
Tahert 68/1,81/3
Tahiti 26/1, 27, 24672
Tai Shan 44/2
Taipei 254/1
Taiping Rebellion (1851-64) 199, 199/3
Taiwan
see also Formosa
to 1000 19, 19/4, 26, 26/1
1500-1790119/2
1792-1914 196/1, 197/2, 198/1,199/2
1867-1937 200/3
China 1911-49 225, 225/2, 234/1
Ming period 1368-1644 138/1, 139, 139/3
religion c. 1500 63/3
since 1945 242/1, 245/1,254/1, 273/3,
283/3
Taiyuan 72/2, 199/4, 254/1,255/2, 255/3
Taizu, Emperor of Japan 86, 138
Tajikistan 236/2, 262/1 , 263, 26671 , 279/2
Takada 141/3
Takamatsu 141/3
Takamatsu, Battle of (1582) 87/4
Takedda 81/3
Takht-i-Bahi 44/2
Takrur 80, 80/1, 81/3
Taksasila 47/3, 47/4
Takua Pa 52/2
Talas River, Battle of the (751) 69/1, 72/1, 73
Talaud Islands 196/1,197/2
Talavera, Battle of (1809) 16672
Talca 190/2
Talcahuano, Battle of (1817) 190/2
Taliban 243, 261
Tall-i Qaleh 29/3
Tambo Colorado 110/1
Tambo Viejo, Peru 34/2
Tambov 181/3, 222/1
Tambralinga 64/1
Tamerlane see Timur-leng
Tamil Nadu 249/3
Tamils 46, 46/2, 249, 269/2
Tamil Tigers 269
Tampa 208/1
Tamralipti
600 bc-ad 500 47/3, 47/4, 53/1
500-1500 83/2,104/1
Tamraparni 53/1
Tamtsag-Bulak 50/2
Tamuin 85/3
Tanais 40/2
Tancah 85/3
Tanega Shima 118/1,119/2
Tanfield Lea 135/2
Tang dynasty 62, 72-73, 72/1, 86
Tangier 68/1,146/1, 158/1,205/3
Tangku Truce (1933) 200/3
Tangshan 254/1
Tangut people 86, 8671, 87
Tanimbar 119/2, 196/1,197/2
Tanjore 119/3, 144/2
Tannenberg, Battle of (1914) 218/1, 219
Tanshui 138/1, 198/1
Tantra 63
Tanum 21/3
Tanzania
see also German East Africa
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
democracy since 1939 256/2
Gross National Product 1995 278/1
independence 1961 246/2, 256/1, 257
migration 1918-98 275/3
Taoism see Daoism
Tarascan Empire 85, 85/4, 111, 111/3
Tarawa 235/3
Tarraco 54/1
Tarraconensis 54/1
Tarsus 3671 , 37/3, 42/3, 55/1 , 67/1
Tartaria, southeast Europe 20/1
Tartessus 38/3
Taruga 23/3
Taruma 53/1
Tarut 29/3
Tashkent 223/3
Tasman, Abel Janszoon 202, 202/1
Tasmania
see also Van Dieman's Land
27/2,202,202/1,203/2
Tatars 148, 148/1
Tatarstan 263
Tatta 144/2, 145/3
Taung 1671
Taurida 149/3
Tauroggen 157/3
Taxila 42/3, 53/1
Tayma 68/1
Tbilisi 263/2
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
see also Tiflis
Tchissanga 23/3
Tecklenburg 1 57/3
Tegdaoust 81, 81/3
Tegernsee 75/3
Teghaza 81/3
Tegucigalpa, Honduras 226/1
Tehran 281/4
Teke 204/1
Telingana 89/4
Tell 37/3
Tell Abul Hureyra 18/2
Tell Arpaehiyeh 19/3
Tell es-Sawwan 19/3
Tell es-Suleimen 29/3
Tell Halaf 19/3
Tellicherry 145/3
Temujin see Ghinggis Khan
Tenasserim 194/2, 196/1
Tengchong 199/2, 199/4
Tennessee 182/1, 184, 184/1,184/2,
185/3
Tenoehtitlan 110, 111, 111/4, 120, 120/2,
120/3
Teopantecuanitlan, Mesoamerica 32/1
Teotihuacan, Mesoamerica 32/2, 33, 33/3
Teotihuacan Empire 32-33, 32/2
Teotitlan 111/3
Tepanecs 110
Tepe Sialk 29/3
Tepe Yahya 19/3, 29/3, 50/1
Tequixquiac 24/1
Teresh 37/3
Ternate 65/3, 118, 118/1, 196/1
Ternier 147/3
Ternifinel7/2
Terra Amata 17/2
terrorism 243, 243
Tet offensive (1968) 251
Tete 205/3
Teuehitlan 85, 85/4
Teusino, Treaty of (1595) 150
Teutonic Knights 91, 91/3, 106/1, 150,
154/1
Texas
1824-67 193/2
American Civil War 184, 185/3
slavery 184/1,184/2
United States acquisition of 182, 182/1
TexcocollO, 111, 111/4
Thaba Nchu 257/3
Thailand
see also Siam
Japan 1995 253/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
Second World War 234/2, 235, 235/3
since 1920 250, 250/1, 251
trade 1980 273/3
trade since 1920s 251/3
urban population 1990s 251/3
Vietnam War 250/2
Thapsacus 42/3
Thapsus 38/3
Thatta 144/1
The Hague 103/3, 135/2
Thebes, Egypt 30/1 , 37/2 , 39
Thebes, Greece 37/3, 43, 67/1
Themistocles 41
Theoderic the Amal, King of the Ostrogoths
57
Theodosiopolis 67/1
Thera 40/2
Theravada Buddhism 44/2, 63/3, 197
Therma 41/3
Thermopylae 76/1
Thermopylae, Battle of (480 bc) 41, 41/3
Thessalonica
to AD 500 45/4, 54/1
500-1500 67/1, 67/3, 96, 9672, 97/4,
102/1
Thessaly 41/3, 41/4, 42/2, 43, 217/3
Thetford 79/3
Thionville 74/2
Thionville, Battle of (1643) 159/2
Thira 36
Thirteen Colonies
c.1770 130/1, 164/1
American Revolution 164-65, 164/2
Canada 188
Thirty Years War (1618-48) 150, 153, 155,
156, 159/2
Thompson, David 188, 188/2
Thorn 91/3, 107/4
Thorney 79/4
Thrace 41/3, 42, 42/2, 43, 55
Thracia 54-55/1
Three Emperors' Alliance (1881) 216/1, 217
Three Mile Island 280
Thurgau 90/2, 155/2
Thuringia 70/2, 74/2, 75, 90/1, 177/4
Thuringians 57/4, 74, 74/1
Thutmose I 37
Thutmose III 37, 37/2
Ti-n-Torha 22/1
Tiananmen Square, Beijing 255
Tiandal Shan 44/2
Tianjin
1368-1644 138/1
1800-1911199/2,211/1
since 1945 254/1, 255/2, 255/3
Tibarene 42/1
Tiberias, Kingdom of Jerusalem 94/2
Tiberius, Roman emperor 55
Tibet (Xizang)
1000-1398 86/1,87/2, 89/4, 98/1
Manchu Qing dynastv 1644-1840 139,
139/3
religion 750-1500 62/1,63/3
since 1945 249, 255
Tang period 618-907 72/1, 73
trade with Ming period China 1368-1644
138/1
Tiehitt 22/2, 81/3
Ticino 147/3, 155/2
Tidore 65/3, 118/1, 196/1
Tiel 75/4
Tienen 103/3
Tievebulliagh, Ireland 20/1
Tiflis 69/1, 181/3,223/3
see also Tbilisi
Tikal, Mesoamerica 33, 33/3, 33/4, 84/2
Tiku 119/2
Tilantongo 85/4
Tileara 110/1
Tillia-Tepe 51/4
Timbuktu Sl/3, 204, 204/1 , 205/3
Timerevo 71/3, 78/2
Timisoara 264/1
Timisoara, Battle of (1849) 175/4
Timor
c.3,000 BC 19/4
1500-1790 118/1, 119/2, 119/3, 131/1
1792-191419671,197/2
since 1914 234/2, 250/1
Timurid dynasty 99
Timur-leng (Tamerlane) 89/4, 97, 99, 99/4,
105
Tingis 38/3, 66/1
Tipasa 45/4
Tippu Tip 206/1
Tiryns 37/3
Tirzah 45/3
Tito, Josip Broz 236, 265
Tiumen 148/2
Tiwanaku, Peru 35, 35/3
Tjeker37/3
Tlacopan 110, 111, 111/4
Tlatilco, Mesoamerica 32/1
Tlaxcala 120, 120/2, 120/3
Tlaxcallan 111/3
Tlemcen 81/3
Toba 141/2
Tobago 247, 125/2, 193/3, 247/3
Tobolsk 148/2, 223/3
Tobruk 232/1
Togo
1700-1914 20671,210/1
since 1939 24672, 25671, 256/2, 277/3
Tokugawa Ieyasu 87, 140
Tokugawa Shogunate 87, 87/4, 118, 140-41,
200-1
Tokushima 141/2, 141/3
Tokyo
see also Edo
1450-1600117/1
1800-1930 20671,211/1
since 1939 235/3, 252/1,274, 281/4
Toledo 68/1, 102/1, 152/1,156/1, 187/3
Tollaneingo 85/3
Tollocan 111/3
Tollund 21/4
Toltecs 85, 85/3
Tome Bamba 110/1
Tomsk 148/2, 223/3
Tonga 26, 2671, 246/2, 247/4
Tongeren 103/3
Tonggyong 87/3
Tongsamdong 18/1
Tonina, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Tonkin 197/2
Tonning 158/1
Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494) 117
Torfosa 94/2
Torksey 79/3
Toro 19/4, 204/1
Toronto 189/3
Torralba-Ambrona 1 7/2
Torres, Luis Vaez 202/1
Tortuguero, Mesoamerica 84/2
Tosali 47/3
Tototepec 111/3
Tottori 141/2
Toul 147, 147/2
Toulon 158/1, 16671
Toulouse 102/1, 133/4, 134/1,155/3
Toulouse, Battle of (1814) 167/2
Toulouse, County of 92/1 , 93/5
Touraine, County of 92/1
Tournai 92/1, 103/3
Tours
500-1300 74/2, 75/3, 75/4, 102/1
1526-1800 155/3, 16671
Trafalgar, Battle of (1805) 16672, 167
Trail of Tears 183/4
Trajan 55
Trajanopolis 67/3
Tranquebar 119/2, 145/3
Trans-Jordan 179/1,221/3, 232/1
Trans-Siberian Railway 180
Transkei 257/3
Transnistria 233/2
Transoxania 69/1,88/2, 142/2, 143
Transvaal 20672
Transylvania
1207-79 98/2
1500-1700 142/1,146/1, 147, 153/3,
159/2
1700-1914 174/1, 175/2,178/1, 178/2
Trapani 102/1
Trapezus 40/2, 55/2
Trastamara dynasty 106
Travanoore 194/1, 194/2, 195/3, 248/1
Travnik, southeast Europe 158/1
Trebizond
500-1500 62/1,67/1, 96, 97/4, 101/4
1500-1683 143/1
1683-1923 179/1
Trelleborg 79/5
Trempeauleau 25/2
Treng-Ganu 62/1
Trent, Council of 154/1, 155
Trenton, Battle of (1776) 165/3
Tres Zapotes, Mesoamerica 32/1
Treviso 74/2, 103/2, 134/1
Trianon, Treaty of (1920) 220/2
Triebel, Battle of (1647) 159/2
Trier 45/4, 90/1,102/1,134/1, 154/1
Trieste 230/1
Trim 93/4
Trincomali 119/2, 145/3
Trinidad 120/1,130/1, 193/3
Trinidad and Tobago
since 1945 247, 247/3
Trinill7/2
Tripartite Pact (1941) 232, 235
Triple Alliance (1882) 21671, 21672, 217
Triple Entente 21672, 217, 218, 218-19/1
Tripoli, County of, Holy Land 94, 94/2, 95/3,
95/5
Tripoli, North Africa
1100-1300101/4
1500-1683 142/1,14671
1683-1912 178/1,204/1, 205/3, 210/1
Tripolis 38/3
Tripuri 47/3
Tristan da Cunha 246/2, 247/4
Trondheim 150/1
Trotsky, Leon 222, 223
Troy 37/3
Troyes
400-1500 7671, 100/1, 101, 102/1, 107/4
1526-1765 155/3
1789-94 166/1
Troyes, County of 92/1
Trujillo 190/2
Truk Islands 235, 235/3
Truman Doctrine 244
Truman, Harry S 242, 244
Trundholm 21/3
Tsaritsyn
see also Stalingrad
1462-1795 148/2
1905-7 181/3
since 1914 222/1
Tskhinvali 263/2
Tsushima Strait, Battle of (1905) 201
Tswana 136/1
Tu people 31/3
Tuamotu 2671
Tuamotu Arch 24672
Tubingen 134/1
Tubuai Islands 24672
Tula, Mexico 85, 85/3
Tula, Russia 158/1, 181/3, 222/1,223/3
Tularosa Cave 25/2
Tulum 85/3
Tumbes 110/1,121/4, 122/2
Tun-huang 47/4
Tungus 148/1 , 148/2
Tunis
12th-13th century 101/4
1490-1700 142/1, 146/1, 152, 152/1
1683-1881 178/1,204/1, 210/1
Tunis, Siege of (1535) 158/1
Tunisia
1880-1939 206/1
First World War 218/1
migration 1918-98 275/3
Second World War 232/1 , 233, 233/2
since 1945 246/2, 256, 25671, 25672,
279/3
Tupac Amaru 190
Tupac Yupanqui 110
Tupian 122/2
Tupiza 110/1
Tureng Tepe 50/1
Turfan 44/2, 53/1, 104/1
Turin
1500-1770 103/2, 133/4, 134/1
1800-1900 1 72/2, 1 76/2, 210/1
Second World War 232/1
Turin, Battle of (1706) 174/1
Turkestan 104/1, 139, 139/3
Turkey
see also Ottoman Empire
1920-24 179,179/4
since 1945 244, 260/1, 261, 261/4
Cyprus since 1974 267/2
democracy since 1914 268/1
empire 1880-1914 208/1
First World War 218, 218-19/1,220/2,
221, 221/3
Great Depression 1929-33 229/3
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
Kurds 269/2
migration 1918-98 275/3
Second World War 232/1 , 233/2
trade 1980 273/3
Turkish Beyliks 89/5
Turkmenia 50/1
Turkmenistan 236/2, 237/3, 262/1, 270/2
Turks and Caieos 247/3
Turuchansk 148/2
Tuscany
950-1350 90/1,100/1
1737-1870 167/2, 174/1,1 76/1 , 1 76/2
Tusmore 104
Tustrup, northern Europe 20/1
Tutankhamun 37
Tuticorin 144/2
Tutishcainyo 25/4
Tutsis 269/2
Tuvalu 247/2, 247/4
Tuzigoot 108/1
Tuzla 267/3
Tver 148/1, 181/3,222/1
Tyana 67/1
Tvras 40/2
Tyre 36/1 , 38, 42/3, 67/3, 94/2
Tyrnau 134/1
Tyrol
950-1360 90/1,91/3
1490-1765 152/1, 153, 154/1
1700-1914 174/1
Tzinacantlan 111/3
Tzintzuntzan 85/4
U-Thong 52/2
UaiBobo 18/1, 52/2
Uan Muhuggiag 22/2
Uaxactun 33, 33/4, 84/2
Ubeidiyal7/2
Udine 103/2
Ufa 181/3,222/1,223/3
Uganda
1700-1900 206/1, 208/1,210/1
since 1914 24672, 247/4, 25671 , 274/1 ,
275/3
Ugarit 36/1, 37/3
Uighurs62/1, 72/1,98/1
Uitenhage 257/3
Ujjain 144/1,210/1
Ujjayini 47/3, 47/4
Ujung Pandang 251/3
Ujvidek 175/4
Ukraine
300-1000 76-77
1500-1795 146/1,149/3, 151/5, 15671
1948-89 236/2, 237/3, 238/2
migration 1918-98 275/3
Russian Revolution 222/1
Second World War 232/1 , 233/2, 233/3
since 1991 262, 262/1, 263
Ulan-Ude 223/3
Ulithi 235/3
Ulm, Battle of (1805) 167, 167/2
Ulmanis, Karlis 231/4
Ulundi 257/3
Umayyad dynastv 69, 88, 88/1
Umlazi 257/3
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Umm Dabaghiyeh 19/3
Umm-an Nar 29/3
United Arab Emirates 260/1 , 268/1 , 274/1 ,
277/3
United Kingdom
see also England; Great Britain; Northern
Ireland; Scotland; Wales
colonial empire 1870-1914 208, 209,
209
colonial empire since 1945 246-247,
246-47/2, 246/1 , 247/3
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
Cyprus since 1960 267/2
distribution of wealth 278
economy since 1945 272/1, 272/2,
273/3
European Free Trade Area 238/2, 239
European Union 238/2
female suffrage 270/1
First World War 21 7
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228/2,
229
industrialization 1830-1914 170, 170/1,
171,171/2,171/3
Ireland conflict since 1914 268-69, 269/2
Japan since 1945 253
migration 1918-98 275/3
population 1700-1900 210/1
Second World War 232/1 , 233/2, 238/1
urbanization 1800-1914 211
War of the Spanish Succession 1701-14
174, 174/1
United Nations
colonialism since 1945 247
Conference on Environment and
Development (1992) 280
Decade for Women 270
education since 1945 278-79
Human Development Index 278
Iraqi invasion of Kuwait 1991 261
Kashmir 249
Korean War 244/2
Monetary and Financial Conference
(1944) 272
Palestine Conflict (1947-49) 261/2
peacekeeping since 1945 266-67
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(1948) 268
United Provinces of Central America 127/2,
191/3
United Provinces, India 248/1
United Provinces of the Netherlands see
Netherlands
United States of America
American Revolution (War of
Independence 1775-83) 164-65,
165/3, 188
Australia 202-3
Canada 1763-1914 188
car ownership and production 1990s
282/1
Caribbean colonies 1830-1910 193/3
China 1800-1911 199/2
Civil Rights movement 240, 241/3
Civil War 1861-65 184-85, 185/3, 187,
189
Cold War 242-43, 244-45, 245/3
colonies 1870-1914 209, 209, 209/2
colonies 1945-98 246-47/2, 246/1,247/3
computer ownership 283, 283/3
distribution of wealth 278
economy since 1945 272-73, 272/1
expansion of 1783-1910 182-83, 182/2,
183/3
female suffrage 270-71, 27V4
First World War 219, 220, 226/3
Great Depression 1929-33 228, 228,
228/1,229,241
Gross National Product 1995 278/1
Gulf War (1990-91) 261
human rights since 1918 268
immigration 187, 187
industrial growth 1790-1900 186-87,
186/1,186/2,187
intervention overseas since 1945 242-43,
242/1,244,245/1
Japan since 1945 252, 253
Latin America 1830-1945 192, 193/2,
226-27, 227/2
Latin America since 1945 259/2
League of Nations 221
Marshall Plan 239
migration 1918-98 275/3
New Zealand 202-3
oil crisis 1973-74 272/2
population 1700-1900 210/1, 211
population since 1900 240, 240, 240/1,
241/2, 241/3
population and urbanization 1900 187/3
Russian Revolution 222/1
Second World War 226/4, 227, 232, 233,
234, 235, 235/3
since 1900 240-41
slavery 1500-1880 127, 127/2, 184/1,
184/2
Southeast Asia 1870-1914 197, 197/2
Southeast Asia since 1920 250, 250/1
standard of living since 1945 278
terrorism 243, 243
trade routes 1880-1914 208/1
trade since 1945 243, 243/2
Vietnam War 250/2, 251
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(1948) 268
Unterwalden 90/2, 155/2
Upington 257/3
Upper Alsace 153/2
Upper Burma 197/2
Upper Canada 188, 188/1, 189
Upper Doab 194/1
Upper Palatinate 152/1,154/1
Upper Volta 206/1
Uppsala, eastern Sweden 134/1
Ur 19/3,28,28/1,29/3
Uraga 141/2
Uraiyur 47/3
Urartu 38/1, 39/4
Urban II, Pope 94
Urbino 134/1, 147/3
Urdaneta, Andr« de 116-17/1,116/2, 117
Urdunn 69/2
Urewe 23/4
Urgench 104/1
Uri 90/2, 155/2
Uruguay
1830-1914 191/3, 192/1
1914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1
since 1945 258/1, 259/3, 272/1,273/3
Uruk 19/3, 28,28/1,37/1
see also Warka
Ushkovskaya 50/2
Ushkur 44/2
Usmal, Mesoamerica 33/4
USSR see Soviet Union
Ust-Khemchik 50/2
Utah 182,182/1,184/2
Utatlan 85/3, 111/3
Ute people 183/4
Utica 38/2
Utrecht 75/3, 75/4, 103/3, 134/1,153/2
Utrecht, Peace of (1713-14) 174, 174/1
Utrecht, Treaty of (1713) 157
Uwajima 141/2
Uxmal, Mesoamerica 84/2
Uzbeks 142/2
Uzbekistan 236/2, 237/3, 260/1, 262/1
Vaca, Alvar Nunez de 120/2, 121
Vaisali 47/3
Val Camonica 21/3
Valabhi 47/3
Valais 90/2, 92/1, 155/2
Valdivia25/4, 121, 121/4, 122/2
Valence, southern France 134/1
Valencia
500-1500 92/2, 92/3, 102/1
1500-1770 128/1, 132/1,132/2, 132/3,
134/1,152/1,156/1
1800-1900172/2
1936-39 231/3
Valenciennes 74/2, 103/3
Valladolid 102/1, 132/2, 134/1
Valladolid, Battle of (1808) 166/2
Valley of the Kings 37/2
Valmy, Battle of (1792) 166/1
Valois 92/1
Valois dynasty 106, 106/2
Valparaiso 122/2
Valtellina 90/2, 147/3, 154/1, 155/2
Van Diemen's Land
see also Tasmania
202
Vanavisi 47/3
Vancouver 188/2, 189/3, 208/1
Vancouver Island 188/2, 189
Vandals 56-57, 56/2, 57/3, 57/4
Vanderbijlpark 257/3
Vanuatu 26/1 , 247/2, 247/4
Varanasi
see also Benares
47/3
Vasco de Gama see Gama, Vasco da
Vasili III, Grand Duke 148, 148/1
Vasilsursk 158/1
Vaskovskoe 50/2
Vatsagulma 47/3
Vaud 147/3, 155/2
Vaud, County of 92/1
Vedrin-lez-Namur 135/2
Velchev, Colonel 231
Venda 257/3
Vendome, County of 92/1
Venetia
see also Venice
1797-1870 174/1, 175/2, 176, 176/1,
176/2
Venezuela
1500-1780 122/2, 123, 126, 127/2
1800-1914 190/2, 191/3, 192/1,193,
193/3, 210/1
1914-45 226/3, 226/4, 227/1 , 229/3
since 1945 258/1 , 259/3, 272/1 , 272/2,
274/1
Venice
see also Venetia
1350-1500 106
1500-1600146/1,147/3
banking and trade 1350-1500 107/4
Black Death 1347-52 105, 105/2
Byzantine Empire 96
civil unrest 1848-49 176
crusades 1095-1291 95, 95/5
empire 1100-1300 101, 101/4
Habsburg Empire 1556-1618 152/1
industrial economy 1650-1750 129/2
Naxos, Duchy of 1340-60 97/3
Ottoman Empire 1683-1923 178, 178/2
population 1000-1500 102, 102/1
population 1500-1800 128/1, 132/1,
132/2, 132/3, 133/4
printing press 1450-70 107/4
rebellions 1848-49 173/3
Slavic trade 700-1000 72/3
urban communities c.1500 103/2
Ver 74/2
Veracruz, Mexico
1500-1750 120, 120/3, 122/1, 131/2
since 1914 227/2
Verberie 74/2
Vercelli 134/1
Verden 74/2
Verdun 147, 147/2, 218, 218/1
Verdun, Battle of (1916) 218, 219/2
Verdun, Treaty of (843) 74/2, 75
Verkhoyansk 148/2
Vermandois, County of 92/1, 93/5
Vermont 182/1
Verneuil, Battle of (1424) 106/2
Verona 75/3, 103/2, 133/4
Verrazano, Giovanni da 116/1, 117
Versailles, Treaty of (1919) 220-21, 220/2,
228, 231
Verzenay 74/2
Vespasian 55
Vespucci, Amerigo 116/1, 117
Vexin 92/1
Viatka 148/1, 181/3
Viborg 79/5, 149
Vicenza 103/2, 134/1
Vichy government 232, 233/2
Vicksburg, Battle of (1863) 184, 185/3
Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy 176
Victoria, Canada 188/2
Vidisa 47/3
Vienna
950-1500 101/3, 102/1, 105/2
1800-1900 173/3, 174, 175/4, 178, 210/1
centre of learning c.1770 134/1
Newcomen engine 135/2
Ottoman Empire 1490-1700 142, 153
population 1600-1800 128/1, 132/2,
132/3, 133/4
Spanish Road 152/1
Vienna, Battle of (1683) 158/1, 159
Vienna, Congress of (1815) 167, 172, 172/1,
174, 176, 176/1
Vienna, Siege of (1683) 158/1
Vientiane 251/3
Vietcong 250/2, 251
Vietminh 250
Vietnam
see also Annam
1790-1914196/1, 197
First Indochinese War 245/1
Human Development Index 1994 279/2
independence 1954 247/2, 250/1
infant mortality rate 1990-95 277/3
migration 1918-98 275/3
trade since 1920s 251/3
urban population 1990s 251/3
Vietnam War 1959-75 243, 244, 245/1
women in employment 1990s 270/2
Vietnam War (1959-75) 242/1, 243, 244,
245/1,250-51,250/2
Vigo, Battle of (1702) 174/1
Vijaya, Prince 46, 46/2
Vijayanagar 62/1 , 89/4
Vikings 66, 78-79, 93
Vilcas Huaman 110/1
Villa, "Pancho" 226
Villaeh 107/4
Villaggio Leopardi, Italy 20/1
Villaviciosa, Battle of (1710) 174/1
Vilna 134/1
Vilnius 181/3
Vimeiro, Battle of (1808) 166/2
Viminacium 54/1 , 76/1
Vinca, southeast Europe 20/1
Viracochapampa, Peru 35/3
Virgin Islands
see also British Virgin Islands
1830-1910 193/3
US intervention 227/2
Virgin Lands territory, Russia 236, 237/3
Virginia
admission to United States 182/1
American Civil War 184, 185, 185/3
British colonization 1600-1763 124
slavery 1500-1880 125, 126, 127, 184/1,
184/2
Virunum 54/1
Visby 107/4
Viscayas Islands 197/2
Visigoths 55, 57, 57/3, 57/4, 74/1
Visigoths, Kingdom of the 66/1
Vitebsk 181/3, 222/1 , 223/3
Vitebsk, Battle of (1812) 167/2
Viterbo 103/2
Vitesk 223/3
Vitoria, Battle of (1813) 166/2
Vitry, County of 92/1
Vix 21/4
Vizcaya 156/1
Vladikavkaz 263/2
Vladimir 222/1
Vladivostok 180, 208/1 , 223/3
Vo-canh 52/2
Vohemar 83/2
Volga Bulgars 71/3, 71/4, 77/3, 78, 78/2
Volga Germans 262/3
Volga steppe 76-77
Volgograd see Stalingrad; Tsaritsyn
Volhynia 71/4, 146/1, 151/5
Vologda 181/3, 222/1
Vorkuta 223/3
Vorodino, Battle of (1812) 167/2
Voronezh 158/1, 181/3, 222/1,223/3
Voturno, Battle of (1860) 176/2
Vratislavia 98/2
see also Breslau; Wroclaw
Wadai 204/1
Wadan 81/3
Wagram, Battle of (1809) 167/2
Waiblingen 90/1
Waitangi, Treatv of (1840) 202
Wakayama 141/2, 141/3, 200/1
Wake Island 234/2, 247/2
Walata 81/3
Walcheren 75/4
Waldeck 177/4
Wales
1000-1500 93, 93/4
1500-1800 128, 129/2, 132, 133/4, 146/1
Wall Street Crash 226, 228
Wallachia
1000-1500 97/4, 106/1
1500-1739 142/1, 146/1, 147, 178/2
Wallingford 79/4
Wan 49/4
Wang Mang, Emperor of China 49
Wang state 31/3
Wanxian 199/2
War of 1812 182, 187
Warberg 91/3
Warburton, Peter Egerton 202/1
Wareham 79/4
Wargala 81/3
Warka 28, 28/1, 28/2
see also Uruk
"Warring States" 48, 48/1, 49
Warsaw
1350-1500 107/4
1450-1800 133/4, 158/1
1800-1914 172/2, 173/3, 181/3, 210/1
1990s 281/4
Warsaw, Grand Duchy of 167/2
Warsaw Pact (1955) 236, 236/1, 244, 245/1
Warwick 79/4
Washington state 182/1, 184/2
Washington DC 184/2, 185/3, 187/3, 210/1
Washukanni 36/1
Wasit 69/1
Wasserburg 21/3
Watehet 79/4
ATLAS OF WORLD HISTORY: INDEX
Waterloo, Battle of (1815) 167, 167/2
Watt, James 135
Wei Hai Wei 208/1
Wei people 31/3
Wei state 31/3, 49
Weihai 198/1
Welfesholz, Battle of (1115) 90/1
Welkom 257/3
Wellington, New Zealand 202/1 , 208/1
Wenceslas, Prince 70
Wenden 158/1
Wendish Crusade (1147-1185) 91
Wends 74/2
Wenzhou 199/2, 2SS/3
Weshesh 3 7/3
Wessex 79, 79/3
West Asia
1200-600 bc 38-39
West Bank 260, 260/1, 261/2
West Florida 182/1
West Galieia J5J/5, 174/1
West Germany 238/1 , 238/2, 272/1 , 272/2,
273
since 1945 239
West Indies
1450-1600 116/1, 117
1500-1880 126/1, 127, 127/2, 128
West Indies, Federation of the 247
West Kennet, British Isles 20/J
West New Guinea 266/1
West Pakistan 248/2, 249
see also Pakistan
West Pomerania 157/3
West Prussia 151/5, 157/3, 177/4
West Rand 257/3
West Turkana 1671
West Virginia 182/1, 185/3
Western Australia 203/2
Western Europe
1000-1500 1020-3
since 1945 238-39
Western India States Agency 248/1
Western Regions Protectorate, China 52,
53/1
Western Sahara 246/2, 256/1 , 256/2, 266/1 ,
274/1
Western Samoa 247/4
Western Trail 183/3
Western Turks 76
Westphalia 100, 177/4
Westphalia, Peace of (1648) 150-51, 153
Wetar 119/2, 19671, 197/2
White Mountain, Battle of (1620) 153/3,
158/1,159/2
White Russia SSR 233/3
Whitehaven, northwest England 135/2
Whittaker, Jeremiah 156
Whydah 137/2
Wielbark culture 56, 56/2
Wiener Neustadt 98/2
The Wilderness, Battle of (1864) 185/3
William I, Prince of Orange 156
William I, Kaiser of Germany 177, 177
William I (the Conqueror) 93
William II, Prince of Orange 156
Willkawain, Peru 35/3
Willoughby, Sir Hugh 116-17/1
Wills, William 202/1
Wilmington, North Carolina 185, 185/3
Wilson, Woodrow 220, 221, 221
Wilton, England 79/4
Wilton, South Africa 22/1, 23/4
Wilzi people 7672
Wimpfen, Battle of (1622) 159/2
Winchester, England 79/4, 102/1
Winchester, Virginia 185/3
Windau 91/3
Winneba 137/2
Winnipeg 188/2, 189/3
Wisby 91/3
Wisconsin 184/2
Wiskiauten 70, 71/3, 78/2
Wislanians 70/2
Wismar 107/4, 150/1
Wissembourg 75/3
Witla 75/4
Wittelsbaeh dynasty 90/1, 106
Wittenberg 134/1, 154, 154/1
Wittmar, northern Europe 20/1
Wittnauer Horn 21/3, 21/4
Wittstoek, Battle of (1636) 151/2
Wolfe, James 188
Wolfenbuttel, Battle of (1641) 159/2
Wolgast, Battle of (1628) 159/2
Worcester, England 79/4
Worcester, Massachusetts 187/3
Worcester, South Africa 257/3
World Bank 272
World Health Organization (WHO) 276
World Trade Center 243
World War I see First World War
World War II see Second World War
Worms 74/2, 90/1,102/1
Wounded Knee, Battle of (1890) 183/4
Wroclaw 102/1, 107/4
see also Breslau; Vratislavia
Wu Ding 30, 31/3
Wudi, Emperor of China 52
Wuhan
1800-1911 199/3,211/1
since 1945 254/1,255/2, 255/3, 281/4
Wuhu 13671, 199/2
Wun Rok 23/3
Wuppertal 210/1
Wiirttemberg
1526-1765 146/1, 152/1, 154/1, 155
1815-71 177/4
Wurzburg 134/1 , 135/2, 154/1
Wusun nomads 51/4, 52, 53/1
Wutai Shan 44/2
Wuxi 254/1, 255/2
Wuzhou 199/2
Wycliffe, John 106
Wyoming 182/1
o
Xankandi 263/2
Xcalumkin, Mesoamerica 84/2
Xerxes, King of Persia 41, 41/3, 42-43/1, 43
Xhosa 136/1
Xhou dynasty 48
Xi Jiang 19/4
Xi-an 211/1
1800-1911 199/4
since 1930 224/1,254/1, 255/2, 255/3
Xi-an Incident 225
Xiamen 198/1, 255/3
see also Amoy
Xiang 31/3
Xiangtan 138/1
Xianrendong 18/1
Xianyuan 48/1
Xiaxian 31/3
Xicalango 85/3, 111, 111/3
Xin Xian 31/3
Xinbao-an 225/2
Xing state 31/3
Xingtai 31/3
Xining 254/1, 255/3
Xiongnu nomads 48/1,48/2, 49, 51, 51/4, 52,
52/1
Xixia state 86, 86/1,87/2
Xochicalco, Mexico 85/3
Xoconochco Province 111/3
Xtampak, Mesoamerica 33/4
Xu Guangqi 138
Xu-yi people 31/3
Xuantong, Emperor 224
Xunantunich, Mesoamerica 84/2
Xuzhou 31/3, 254/1
Xuzhou, Battle of (1949) 225/2
Yakkhas 4672
Yakutia 263
see also Sakha
Yakuts 148/2, 180/1
Yakutsk 14672, 223/3
Yamagata 141/2
Yamaguchi 200/1
Yamama 69/1, 69/2
Yamazaki, Battle of (1582) 87/4
Yan state 48/1
Yan-an 224, 224/1 , 225
Yantai
1800-1911 19671, 199/2, 199/4
1980s 255/2, 255/3
Yao 204/1
YarimTepel9/3
Yarinoeocha 25/4
Yarmouth 91/3
Yarmuk, Battle of (636) 68, 6671
Yaroslavl 148/1 , 181/3, 223/3
Yawata 200/1
Yaxchilan, Mesoamerica 33/4, 84/2
Yaxuna 33/4, 84/2
Yavoi-cho 19/4
Yeha 23/3
Yekaterinburg
see also Svardlovsk
181/3
Yellow Turbans 49
Yeltsin, Boris 262-63
Yelwa 23/3
Yemen
1200 88/3
since 1945 24672, 260/1, 26671, 277/3
Yemen Arab Republic 260/1, 261
Yemen, Democratic Republic of 260/1
Yeniseisk 148/2
Yi dynasty 87
Yi Song-gye, General 87
Yi Sun-Sin 87
Yiehang 199/2
Yidu 31/3
Yin 31, 31/3
Yinchuan 255/3
Yingkou 19671
Y'ogyakarta 196/1
Yokkaichi 14V2
Yokohama 200/1 , 208/1 , 211/1 , 252/1
Yokosuka 200/1
Yonezawa 141/3
Yongzhou 138/1
Yopitzinco, Mexico 111/3
York, England 78, 7672, 79/3, 93/4
Yorktown, Battle of (1781) 165, 165/3
Yorktown, Virginia 185/3
Yoruba 81, 137/2, 205
Young Turks 179
Ypres 91/3, 102, 103/3
Ypres, Battles of (1914, 1915, 1917) 219/2
Yuan dynasty 99, 99/3, 105
Yuan Shikai 199, 224
Yuanmou 1 7/2
Yucatan Peninsula
1000-1500 84, 84/2, 85/3
1492-1550 120, 120/2, 121
1839-68 193/2
Yueyang 255/3
Yuezhi nomads 51, 51/4, 52, 53/J
Yugoslavia
1914-45 220/2, 221, 221/4, 228/2, 229/3,
231/4, 232/1
1945-89 233/3, 236, 236/1, 237
since 1989 264/1 , 265, 265/3, 267/3,
269/2, 282/1
Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of
1991-99 265/3
Yukagirs 180/1
Yukon Territory 189/3
Yunotsu period 141/2
Yuwu Rong people 31/3
Zaachila 85/4
Zacapu 85/4
Zacatecas 122/1
Zaculeu 85/3,111/3
Zagreb see Agram
Zaire 246/2, 26671
see also Belgian Congo; Congo,
Democratic Republic of
Zakro 3671
Zaman Baba 50/2
Zambia 246/2, 247/4, 256/1,256/2, 257
see also Northern Rhodesia
Zamosc 158/1
Zanzibar
500-1500 83/2
1500-179011671,130/1
1800-1914 204/1, 205/3, 206/1,208/1
Zapata, Emiliano 226
Zapatistas 269/2
Zapolya, Jan 153
Zaporozhe 158/1
Zapotecs 32-33, 85, 85/4
Zara 105/2, 230/1
Zaragoza
500-1500 74/2, 102/1, 107/4
1500-1800 133/4, 134/1
1800-1914 172/2
Zaragoza, Battle of (1710) 174/1
Zaragoza, Battle of (1809) 16672
Zarzi 1671
Zavist 21/4
Zawi Chemi 1671
Zawila 81/3
Zeeland 103/3
Zeila 82, 83/2, 204/1, 205/3
Zengids S673, 89
Zengpiyan 18/1
Zepa 1993 267/3
Zhang Qian 52
Zhangjiako, Battle of (1948) 225/2
Zhanjiang, southern China 199/2
Zhao Kuangyin see Taizu, Emperor
Zhao state 4671
Zheng He 116, 139,139/2
Zhengzhou 31/3, 254/1 , 255/3
Zhenjiang, eastern China 138/1,199/2,
199/4
Zhitomir 222/1
Zhou dynasty 31, 31/3
Zhoukoudian 16, 1673, 17/2
Zhu Qizhen, Emperor 139
Zhu Yiujian, Emperor 139
Zia-ul-Haq, Muhammad 249
Zibo 254/1, 255/2
Zijanids 89/5
Zimbabwe
see also Rhodesia; Southern Rhodesia
900-1500 82/1
Commonwealth of Nations since 1945
247/4
democracy since 1939 256/2
education 1995 279/3
independence 1980 24672, 247, 25671,
257
population growth since 1945 274/1
Zipangu see Japan
Zirids 8671
Ziwa 23/4
Zlatoust 181/3
Zogy, Albanian king/president 231/4
Zohapilco, Mesoamerica 24/3
Zollverein 177
Zoroaster 45
Zoroastrianism 44/1, 45, 62
Zufar 139, 139/2
Zug 90/2, 155/2
Zuhab, Peace of (1639) 142/2, 143
Zuilon 145/3
Zulus 204-5, 204/1 , 206/1
Zungharia 139/3
Zuni Pueblo 108/1
Zurich 90/2, 154/1, 155/2
Zurich, Battle of (1799) 167/2
Zusmarshausen, Battle of (1643) 159/2
Zutphen 153/2
Zwingli, Huldreich 155
Zwinglianism 154/1, 155
Zyuganov, Gennady 263
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The books listed below are recommended by the
contributors to this atlas as sources of further
information on the topics covered by the maps and text.
GENERAL
WORLD
HISTORY
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Bulliet, R. et al. The Earth and its Peoples: A Global
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Clark, R.P. The Global Imperative: An Interpretive
History of the Spread of Humankind Westview Press,
Oxford/Boulder 1997
Crosby, A. W. Ecological Imperialism: The Biological
Expansion of Europe Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge 1993
Curtin, P. Cross-Cultural Trade in World History
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1984
Frank, A.G. ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age
University of California Press, Berkeley, California
1998
Goody, J. The East in the West Cambridge University
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Heiser, C.B. From Seed to Civilization: The Story of Food
Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 1990
Huff, T. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China
and the West Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
1993
Hugill, P.J. World Trade since 1431: Geography,
Technology and Capitalism John Hopkins University
Press, Baltimore/London 1993
Jones, E.L. Growth Recurring: Economic Change in
World History Clarendon Press, Oxford 1988
Landes, D. The Wealth and Poverty of Nations Little,
Brown and Co/W. W. Norton London/New York 1998
Livi-Bacci, M. Concise History of World Population: An
Introduction to Population Processes Blackwell,
Oxford/Cambridge, MA, 1992
McNeill, W. The Human Condition: An Ecological and
Historical View Princeton University Press, Princeton,
NJ/Guildford 1980
Mokyr, J. The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity
and Economic Progress Oxford University Press,
Oxford/New York, 1992
O'Brien, P.K. (ed.) Industrialisation: Critical
Perspectives on the World Economy Routledge,
London 1998
Ponting, C. A Green History of the World: The
Environment and the Collapse of Great Civilizations
Penguin, London 1991
Roberts J.M. Penguin History of the World, Penguin,
Harmondsworth 1995
Roberts, J.M. Shorter Illustrated History of the World
Helicon, Oxford 1996
THE
ANCIENT
WORLD
World
Johanson, D. and Edgar, B. From Lucy to Language
Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1996
Sherratt, A. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
Archaeology Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
1980
Smart, N. The Worlds Religions Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge 1998
Asia and Australasia
Adams, R.M. Heartland of Cities Chicago University
Press, Chicago 1981
Allchin, B. and Allchin, F.R. The Rise of Civilization in
India and Pakistan Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge 1982
Allchin, F.R. The Archaeology of Early Historic South
Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge 1995
Aubet Semmler, M.E. The Phoenicians and the West
Politics, Colonies and Trade Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge 1993
Barnes, G.L. China, Korea and Japan Thames and
Hudson, London 1993
Chang, K.C. Shang Civilization Yale University Press,
New Haven/London 1980
Dani, A.H. and Masson, V.M. (eds) History of Civilizations
of Central Asia Vol. 1 The Dawn of Civilization;
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Map acknowlegements
The map of trench warfare on page 218 is based on a map in the Atlas of the First World War
by Martin Gilbert (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970), by permission of Routledge. The maps of
European urbanization on pages 132-33 are based on statistics supplied in European
Urbanization 1500-1800 by J. de Vries (Methuen, 1984), by permission of Routledge.
Among the atlases consulted by authors and editors in preparing the maps in this
atlas are the following:
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Blunden, C. and Elvin, M. Cultural Atlas of China Phaidon, Oxford 1983
Coe, M.,Snow, D. and Benson, E. Atlas of Ancient America Facts on File, New York 1986
Collcutt, M., Jansen, M. and Isao, K. Cultural Atlas of Japan Phaidon, Oxford 1988
Cornell, T. and Matthews, J. Atlas of the Roman World Phaidon, Oxford 1982
Darby, H.C. and Fullard, H. (eds) The New Cambridge Modern History Atlas Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge 1978
Castello-Cortes, I. (ed.) The Economist Atlas Economist Books, London 1991
Engel, J. (ed.) Grofier Historischer Weltatlas Vols 1^1 Bayerischer Schulbuch-Verlag,
Munich 1953-96
Fage, J.D. An Atlas of African History Edward Arnold, London 1978
Hon, C. (ed.) The World Atlas of Archaeology Mitchell Beazley, London 1985/Portland House,
New York 1988
Gardner, J.L. (ed.) Reader's Digest Atlas of the Bible: An Illustrated Guide to the Holy Land
Reader's Digest Association, Pleasantville 1981
Gilbert, M. Atlas of the First World War Routledge, London 1970
Gilbert, M. The Dent Atlas of Russian History Dent, London 1993
Hall, D.G.E. Atlas of South-East Asia Djambatan, Amsterdam 1964
Johnson, G. Cultural Atlas of India Facts on File, New York 1996
Kinder, H. and Hilgemann, W. The Penguin Atlas of World History Vols 1-2 Penguin,
Harmondsworth 1995
Levi, P. Atlas of the Greek World Phaidon, Oxford 1970
Manley, B. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Egypt Penguin, London 1996
Moore, R.I. (ed.) Philip's Atlas of World History Philip's, London 1994
Morkot, R. The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece Penguin, London 1996
Muir, R. Muir's Historical Atlas: Ancient, Medieval and Modern Philip's, London 1963
Parker, G.I. (ed.) 77k Times Atlas of World History Times Books, London 1993
Pluvier, J.M. Historical Atlas of South-East Asia E J. Brill, New York 1995
Pritchard, J. Times Atlas of the Bible Times Books, London 1996
Riley Smith, J. (ed.) The Atlas of the Crusades Times Books, London 1991
Roaf, M. Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and The Ancient Near East Facts on File,
New York 1990
Scarre, C. (ed.) Past Worlds - The Times Atlas of Archaeology Times Books, London 1995
Schwartzberg, J.E. A Historical Atlas of South Asia Oxford University Press, New York 1993
Segal, A. An Atlas of International Migration Hans Zell, London 1993
Stier, H.-E. et al. (eds) Westermann grofier Atlas zur Weltgeschichte, Westermann,
Braunschweig 1976
Thomas, A. et al. The Third World Atlas Open University Press, Buckingham 1994
Unwin , T. Atlas of World Development Wiley, Chichester 1 994
Photograph Acknowledgements
AKG London 60, 179, /Erich Lessing 40; Bridgeman Art Library 30, 49, 143, /Artephot,
Private Collection 165, /Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris 95, /Bode-Museum, Berlin 36, /British
Museum, London 20, 26, 1 1 1 , 1 14, /Chester Beatty Library and Gallery of Oriental Art, Dublin
69, /Christie's Images 112, /Christie's, London 58, 174, /Gavin Graham Gallery, London 156,
/Giraudon, Civico Museo Correr, Venice 131, /Guildhall Art Gallery, Corporation of London
132, /Guildhall Library, Corporation of London 160, /Heini Schneebeli 82, /Heini Schneebeli,
National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Ife, Nigeria 81 , /Johnny Van Haeften
Gallery, London 129, /Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna 1 14, /Lauros-Giraudon, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris 161, /Lauros-Giraudon, Galerie Nationale, Palermo, Sicily 104, /Lauros-
Giraudon, Louvre, Paris 56, /National Museum of India, New Delhi (detail) 14, /National
Museum of Iceland, Reykjavik 78, /Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen 137, /Novosti 99, /Peter
Willi/Louvre, Paris 54, /Private Collection 135, 140, 162, 165, 170, 177, 211 , 254, /Roger-
Viollet/Museo E Gallerie Nazionale Di Capodimonte, Naples 43, /Roudnice Lobkowica
Collection, Nelahozeves Castle, Czech Republic 70, /Victoria & Albert Museum, London 59,
61,73, 113, 163, 198, /Wallace Collection, London 156; Peter Carey 197;Corbis241,243;
E.T.Archive 15,79,86,96, 113, 150, 201, 204,/Amano Museum, Lima 35, /Arteaga
Collection Peru 1 10, /British Museum, London 31, /Canning House Library 191, /Imperial War
Museum, London 243, /Mjolnir 233, /Museo Amano, Lima 35; Robert Harding 13, 15, 62,
244, 270, /Gavin Hellier 61 , /M J. Howell 215; Michael Holford /Musee Guimet, Paris 145;
Hulton Getty Picture Collection /Hulton Getty 225, 230, /Hulton-Deutsch Collection 222;
Peter Newark's American Pictures 84, 121, 182, 188,226, 259; Panos Pictures /Peter
Barker, 274, /Caroline Penn 279, /Paul Smith 273, /Chris Stowers 214, /Liba Taylor 276;
Popperfoto /Mike Segar/Reuters 267; Rex Features 213, 221, 236, 249, 257, 263, 282, /Sipa-
Press, Paris 212, /Markus Zeffler 214; Werner Forman Archive 41, /Anthropology Museum,
Veracruz University, Jalapa 32, /Beijing Museum 59, /Dallas Museum of Art, USA 12.
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